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Unit Three: General Anatomy of The of Skeletal System (Osteology)
Unit Three: General Anatomy of The of Skeletal System (Osteology)
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Skeletal system…
Osteology is the part of anatomy devoted to the study of the bone
its formation, form, structure and functions.
The word Skeleton comes from the Greek word meaning “Dried up
Body”.
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Classification of bones
Bones are classified by their shape rather than size as long, short, flat and
irregular.
Is based in the three dimension of the space (length, width and thickness)).
I. Long bones: cylindrical & are considerably longer than they wide.
E.g. The bones of the arms, legs, hands, and feet (but not the wrists and
ankles).
II. Short bones: are roughly cubed shaped. E.g. The bones of the wrists
and ankles.
III. Flat Bones: they are longer and wider than thicker (thin, flattened and
usually somewhat curved).
Forming by an inner and outer thin lamina of compact bone (inner
and outer lamellar) between which lies a spongy substance. e.g.
bones of the skull (diploe), scapula, hip bone and ribs.
IV. Irregular Bones: they have various shapes that do not fit into any of
the above categories.
They have similar structure to short bones. E.g. bones of the
vertebral column.
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1. Sesamoid bone: usually have a shape similar to a sesame seed.
o They are situated at the end of long bones of the limbs. E.g.
patella or knee cap
o This bone helps the tendons to glide over the bony surfaces and
prevent excessive wear and tear and at the same time they act
alter the direction of pull of the tendons.
2. Pneumatic Bones: they contain air filled cavities lined with
mucous membrane. e.g. maxilla, frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid
bones.
3. Wormian or sutural bones: small fragments of bones between
bones of the skull.
4. Heterotopic bones: are the abnormal calcifications in soft tissues.
Short, flat, and irregular bones are all made of spongy bone
covered with a thin layer of compact bone.
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Structures of typical long bone
With few exception, all bones in the body have the same general
structure.
I. Diaphysis: also called shaft, forms the long axis of a long bone/the
shaft or long main cylindrical portion
Endosteum:
lining of marrow cavity and central canals of osteons
is osteogenic bone producing containing bone depositing
cells and bone destroying cells.
Periosteum:
tough membrane covering bone but not the articular
cartilage
Richly supplied by nerves and blood vessels
Secured to the underlying by perforating fibers
sharpey’s fiber
Fibrous layer dense irregular CT
Osteogenic layer bone cells
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Structures of typical long bone
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Bone tissue
Consists of widely separated cells surrounded by large amounts of
extracellular matrix.
Has both organic and inorganic components.
Chemical Composition
o Healthy bone is half as strong as steel in resisting compression
and equally strong in resisting tension.
Bone is composed of the following:
o 35% organic components cells, fibers, and ground substance
o The organic substance particularly collagen, contribute the
flexibility and tensile strength that allow bone resists stretching
and twisting.
o 65% inorganic components minerals, mostly calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate
o Provides bones hardness
o Bone is not completely solid since it has small spaces for vessels
and bone marrow
Spongy bone has many such spaces
Compact bone has very few such spaces
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Classification of the Bones
According to their Location.
A) Axial Skeleton:
This is located around the longitudinal axis of the body.
i.e. most of the bones of the axial skeleton constituted the central
body core of the body, the axis.
This group is composed of 80 Bones
B) Appendicular Skeleton:
This is composed of bones found in the limbs and their
corresponding girdles forming a total of 126 bones.
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Based on gross observation bone has two different structures:
Compact bone
Dense outer layer that looks smooth and solid to the naked eye.
outer layer provides strength.
Makes up the shaft of long bones and the external layer of all bones
Resists stresses produced by weight and movement
Spongy (cancellous)
consists of trabeculae (a honeycomb of small needle like),
containing marrow for blood cell production or fat storage.
It forms most of the structure of short, flat, and irregular bones, and
the epiphyses of long bones.
Spongy bone tissue is light and supports and protects the bone
marrow.
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According to their microscopic appearances.
1. Non - lamellar, Immature or Woven Bones: The term woven denotes
that it has a network of randomly oriented large collagen fibres in its
matrix.
2. Lamellar Bones: All mature bones are Lamellar.
Nutrient arteries:
enter through nutrient foramen
supplies compact bone of diaphysis & red marrow
Metaphyseal a:
supply the metaphysis and are a branch from the nutrient artery
Periosteal arteries:
supply periosteum and are branches of Nutrient and epiphyseal aa
Epiphyseal aa.:
supply red marrow & bone tissue of epiphyses
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Innervations of bones
Blood vessels of bones are accompanied by many nerve
fibers most of which are vasomotor.
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BONE FORMATION
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Intramembranous ossification
Forms the flat bones of the skull, the mandible and clavicle.
The matrix surrounds the cell and then calcifies as the osteoblast becomes an
osteocyte.
The calcifying matrix centers join to form bridges of trabeculae that constitute
spongy bone with red marrow in between.
On the periphery the mesenchyme condenses and develops into the periosteum
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Endochondral ossification
Involves replacement of cartilage by bone and form most of the bones
of the body.
The first step in endochondral ossification is the development of the
cartilage model.
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Zones of Growth in Epiphyseal Plate
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Growth in Thickness
Two processes
Osteoblasts beneath periosteum secrete bone matrix onto external
bone surface
Osteoclasts on endosteal surface remove bone
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Bone Remodeling
Remodeling: is the ongoing replacement of old bone tissue
by new bone tissue.
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Fracture and Repair of Bone
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Fracture repair involves
I. Formation of fracture hematoma
Damaged blood vessels produce clot in 6 - 8 hours, after bone cells
die
Inflammation brings in phagocytic cells for clean-up duty
New capillaries grow into damaged area
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There are two Categories of bone markings.
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Projection as site of muscle attachment:
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Depression commonly seen in bones:
I. Fissure: a narrow slit like opening.
II. Foramen: opening though a bone.
III. Fossa, Pit or Fovea: a Shallow depression in a bone.
IV. Meatus or Canal: an elongate foramen.
V. Sinus: a depression within a bone filled with air and lined with a
mucous membrane.
VI. Notch or ncissure: a depression in the margin of bones.
VII. Ramus: arm like bars of bone that forms an angle with the main part of
the bone.
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RELATED CLINICAL TERMS
Bone graft:
Transplantation of a piece of bone from one part of a person’s
skeleton to another part where bone has been damaged or lost.
The graft, often taken from the crest of the iliac bone of the hip,
encourages regrowth of lost bone.
Bony spur:
o An abnormal projection on a bone due to bone overgrowth; is
common in aging bones.
Ostealgia: Pain in a bone.
Osteomyelitis ( “bone and marrow inflammation”).
Bacterial infection of the bone and bone marrow.
The pathogen enters bones either from infections in surrounding
tissues or through the bloodstream, or follows a compound bone
fracture.
Pathologic fracture
Fracture occurring in a diseased bone and involving slight or no
physical trauma.
An example is a broken hip caused by osteoporosis.
The hip breaks first, causing the person to fall.
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Classification of bones based on their locations
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Classification of the Bones
According to their Location.
A) Axial Skeleton: This is located around the longitudinal axis of the
body that is most of the bones of the axial skeleton constituted the
central body core of the body, the axis.
This group is composed of 80 Bones constituted by:
1- Skull a) Cranium ------ 8
b) Face ----------- 14
2- Hyoid --------------------- 1
3- Auditory Ossicles ------- 6
4-Vertebral Column ------- 26
5-Thorax a) Sternum ------1
b) Ribs ------- 24
Total 80
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B) Appendicular Skeleton: This is composed of bones found in the
limbs and their corresponding girdles forming a total of 126 bones:
In most of the joints bones are joined to bones, but some of them join
bones to cartilages, cartilages to cartilages and teeth to their bony
sockets.
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Structural Classification
In the formation of a joint, the structure found b/n the adjoining ends
of the bones is either a cavity or connective tissue.
The cavity separates the bone ends while the connective tissue
interconnects them, therefore:
The articulating ends of bones in some joints are separated by a fluid
containing articular cavity which is enclosed by a synovial membrane,
i.e. the ends are discontinuous which renders them a free movement.
Such joints are grouped as synovial joints, freely moveable joints or
diarthrosis.
It includes the following varieties.
o Hinge joint
o Pivot joint
o Ball and socket joint
o Gliding (plane) joint
o Saddle joint
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Structural classification…
In such joints the ends of the bones are said to be continuous, due to
which there is little or no movement.
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Classification of joints based on their structure
Joints are classified based on the presence or absence of joint cavity
and kind of supportive CT surrounding the joint.
Three types: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial.
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Classification of joints according to their axes of movement
or degrees of freedom.
Based on the extent of movement joints are classified into:
Synarthrosis (immovable) joints
Amphiarintosis (slightly movable) joints
Diarthorosis (freely moveable) joints
1. Synarthrosis 2. Amphyarthosis
a. Sutures a. symphysis
b. Sychondrosis b. Syndesmosis
c. Gomphosis c. Some synovial joint
3.Diarthrosis
a. Uniaxial (Monaxid) joints
b. Biaxial
c. Triaxial (Multiaxial, Polyaxial)
The first two are mainly restricted to the axial skeleton while the
third dominants in the limbs.
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Fibrous joints
Fibrous joints are classified into three types.
A.Syndesmosis:
Bones are interconnected by bundles of dense collagenous or
elastic connective tissue.
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B. Sutures
The immovably interconnected flat bones of the skull are joined
by short collagen fibers trapped b/n their opposing edges.
e.g. Joints between bones of the skull.
The sutures ossify after birth and the bones become fused by
bony fusion or synostosis.
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Fibrous joints…
Sutures…
Immovable and held by thin layer of dense regular CT
Common in skull
oSerrate suture saw like articulation e.g. sagittal suture
oSquamous suture margin of the bone overlaps with that of
articulating bone e.g. Squamous suture
oPlane suture margins of articulating bones are fairly smooth e.g.
Median palatine suture
All the fixing ligaments around the root of a tooth form the
periodontal ligament.
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Cartilaginous joints
Such joints are found in the growth centers, e.g. Epiphyseal plate,
articulation of the first rib with the sternum…
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Cartilaginous joints
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Synovial joints
Most common and important one
Joint is freely movable
Synovial joints are characterized by the following basic features:
1.Articular head (male part of a joint) the convex end of bone
usually covered by a hyaline cartilage but sometimes by a
fibrocartilage.
2.Articular fossa (Socket, Female part of a joint) a concave
surface into which the head fits. It is similarly covered by an
articular cartilage.
3.Articular (Synovial) cavity a thin capillary space b/n the
articulating ends of bones and the articular capsule
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Synovial joints…
Articular capsule encloses the joint all around and it consists of two
layers.
a.An outer or fibrous layer (stratum fibrosum):
Consists of dense irregular connective tissue composed of collagen
and elastic fibers, hence also called fibrous capsule.
This layer is reinforced or strengthened by ligaments and is continuous
with the periosteum of the adjoining bones.
It is free of blood vessels but contains receptors concerned with joint
position and some sensory fibers conducting pain impulses.
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Synovial joints…
Synovial fluid (synovia):
produced and absorbed by the synovial membrane in to or out
of the articular cavity.
It serves as:
A sliding (slippery) lubricant material so that there will be a reduced
friction b/n the articulating ends of bones.
A transport medium for the nutrition of the articular cartilage, which has
no blood vessels.
The synovial fluid is formed by the fibrocytes of the synovial
membrane (transudate).
It contains few glycoproteins (mucin), hyaluronic acid …
Hyaluronic acid is a glycosaminoglycan forming the gelatinous
material in tissue spaces that acts as cement substance.
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Synovial joints…
Articular cartilage
Is hyaline cartilage, covering articulating surfaces of bones in
a synovial joint.
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Classification of Synovial joints
2. Compound joint: when more than two bones take part in the
formation of a joint. e.g. elbow joint.
3. Complex joint: when discs and menisci are involved. e.g. knee joint.
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Types of synovial joints
o Plane joints allow gliding or sliding movement (uniaxial) e.g. b/n scapula
and clavicle b/n carpal and tarsal bones
o Hinge joints permit flexion and extension only (uniaxial) e.g. elbow, knee
and interphalangeal joints
o Ball and socket joints allow multidirectional movement (multi axial joint)
e.g. shoulder and hip
o Pivot joints allow rotation (uniaxial joint) e.g. at atlantoaxial joint, proximal
radioulnar
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Other structures associated with synovial joint:
oDiscs and meniscus are structures found within the articular cavity
consisting of connective tissue of fibrocartilage. (e.g.
temporomandibular joint, intervertebral join), where as menisci
divide it partly (e.g. knee joint).
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Synovial bursae
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Are small flattened fibrous bag filled with synovial fluid
Found b/n the joints and their surrounding muscles, tendons, and
ligaments that move on each other
Reduce friction
Two types
Some of them communicate with the articular cavity
(communicating bursae) and therefore directly affected by diseases
of the joint and others are non-communicating bursae having no
direct communication with the articular cavity.
Articular labrum (lip)
oAn articular labrum enlarges the articular fossa of the socket so that
the articular head of a bone correctly fits into its socket to form a
stable joint. E.g. glenoidal labrum in the shoulder joint, acetabular
labrum in the hip joint.
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Ligaments
oAre CT structures that hold the body together
oTherefore two major types of ligaments are distinguished:
1. Those that connect the viscera together
2. Those that connect bones together
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Some clinical terms related to bones and joints
Joints are usually injured by tensional and compressional forces applied on
them.
Therefore, there are some terms related to these injuries.
1. Contusion: injury by increased compression.
2. Distortion: injury by increased tension.
3. Ligament or capsular rapture.
4. Dislocation (Luxation or sublaxtion) when bones of a joint are forced
out of a ligament, commonest site being the shoulder joint.
5. Rapture and herniation of discs and menisci usually due to excessive
compression.
6. Sprain when the ligaments reinforcing an joint are over stretched of torn.
7. Osteitis inflammation of a bone.
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8. Osteochondristis inflammation of a bone and its cartilage.
9. Osteomyelitis inflammation of a bone and its marrow.
10. Osteoarthritis (Osteoarthrosis) degenerative disease of bone and articular
cartilage.
11. Osteosarcoma maligament cancer of a bone.
12. Osteomalacia adult rickets
13. Osteoporosis atrophy of skeletal tissue in old age.
14. Bursitis Inflammation bursae ,e.g. Housemaid’s knee or subcutaneous pre
patellar bursitis, students elbow of olecranon bursitis.
15. Tendosynovitis Inflammation of a tendon and its synovial sheath at the
level of joints, also called tendovaginitis.
16. Arthritis disease of the joints, which can be caused by infection (e.g.
Pyogenic athrists, lyme’s disease) or degenerative process like
osteoarthritis.
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