ZENER DIODE

Introduction
 The zener diode, it is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown
region.
 The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across it’s
terminals within given limits of line or load change.
 Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power
supplies and other equipment.

Symbol of zener diode

Forward Bias
 In Forward biased condition Zener diode works as a Normal PN junction
diode.
Reverse Bias
 When reverse voltages are increased, the current through the junction

and the power dissipated at the junction is very high, due to this diode

gets damaged in case of normal PN junction diode.

 If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be very thin and

consequently breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage further the

breakdown voltage is sharp.

 Whereas lightly doped diode has high breakdown voltages.

 Thus breakdown voltage can be selected with the amount of doping.

mA mA

uA uA
 Breakdown Characteristics
Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic curve. As
the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse current is
also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown effect begins;
the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance (ZZ), begins to
decrease as reverse current increases rapidly.
Breakdown Mechanisms

 The sharp increasing current under breakdown are due

to the following two mechanisms.

1)Avalanche breakdown.
2)Zener breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown
 The collision of electrons with the atom creates an electron
hole pair.
 This newly created electrons get accelerated due to electric
field and breaks many more covalent bonds.
 This process of creating more electron hole pairs is called
Avalanche multiplication.
 The process of carrier multiplication takes very quickly it
results in avalanche of charge carriers. Thus the breakdown is
called avalanche breakdown.
Zener Breakdown
 Zener and avalanche effects are responsible for such a dramatic
increase in the value of current at the breakdown voltage.
 If the impurity concentration is very high, then the width of
depletion region is very less. Less width of depletion region will
cause high intensity of electric field to develop in the depletion
region at low voltages.
 This electric field is sufficient to rupture the covalent bonds and
give rise to more number of free electrons.
 Zener effect predominates in diodes whose breakdown voltage is
below 6 V.
Differences between Avalanche & Zener Breakdown
 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
 Voltage regulator is a device that maintains a constant dc output
voltage irrespective of the changes in input voltage or load conditions.
 Under the reverse bias condition the voltage across the zener diode
remains almost constant .
 Thus the voltage across diode serves as a reference voltage. Hence Zener
diode can be used as a Voltage regulator.

Fig: Zener diode as a voltage regulator

Voltage Regulation
 Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:

 Line regulation
 Load regulation
 The purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly constant output
voltage when the input voltage varies.
 The purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly constant output
voltage when the load varies.
 Line Regulation
 When the ac input (line) voltage of a power supply changes, an electronic circuit
called a regulator maintains a nearly constant output voltage.
 Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for
a given change in the input voltage.

• Line regulation can also be expressed in units of %/V

Load Regulation
 Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change in output voltage for a given
change in load current.
 One way to express load regulation is as a percentage change in output voltage from no-
load (NL) to full-load (FL).

 The load regulation can be expressed as a percentage change in output voltage

for each mA change in load current.
 Using ROUT, Thevenin equivalent circuit for a power supply with a load resistor.
UNI JUNCTION TRANSISTOR(UJT)
Symbol
 A Uni junction transistor is three lead electronic semiconductor device with
only one PN junction that exclusively acts as electrically controlled device.

Fig: Symbol
Construction
 In UJT PN junction is formed by lightly doped N-type Silicon bar with heavily
doped P-type material on one side.
 The ohmic contacts on either side of N-type is termed as Base (B1) & Base
(B2).
 The ohmic contact at P-type is termed as Emitter(E).
Equivalent Circuit
 
 The Interbase resistance is given by,
.
 The voltage across RB1 is,

The Intrinsic standoff ratio is

  η=

Therefore, VRB1=η * VBB

Operation

Case: (i) When VE < VD+VRB1 VE=0

PN junction is reverse biased
UJT-- OFF State
Case: (ii) When VE ≥ VD+VRB1
PN Junction is Forward biased
UJT----- ON state
V-I Characteristics
CUT-OFF REGION:
 The region in which UJT doesn't get sufficient voltage to turn ON (VE < VP);
 UJT is said to be OFF state.
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION:
 When VE=VP The PN junction becomes Forward bias and hence IE starts to
flow.
 When VE decreases IE increases, this region is called Negative resistance
region.
SATURATION REGION:
 Increases in IE further Valley point current IV drives device into Saturation
region
 Introduction
 LED is an acronym for Light Emitting Diode.
 A Light Emitting Diode(LED) is a LED semiconductor light
source.
Construction
Working
 Led works on the principle of Electroluminescence.
 Electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light in response to the passage of
electric current is called Electroluminescence.
Process of Electroluminescence
Output characteristics
 D)
LAY (LC
L D ISP
YSTA
D CR
LIQ UI
Introduction
 A Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) is a thin , flat panel display

device used for electronically displaying information such

as text ,images and moving picture.
 LCD is used in Computer monitors, Televisions ,
Instrument panels, Gaming devices etc.
 Polarization of lights is used here to display objects.
Liquid crystals
Three liquid crystal materials which are important in
display technology are Nematic and Smectic and
cholesteric.
Construction
 The liquid crystals are the organic compound which is in
liquid form and shows the property of optical crystals.
 The layer of liquid crystals is deposited on the inner surface
of glass electrodes for the scattering of light.
 The liquid crystal cell is of two types;
 they are Transmittive Type and the Reflective Type.
Transmittive Type – In transmitter cell both the glass sheets are transparent so that
the light is scattered in the forward direction when the cell becomes active.
Reflective Type  – The reflective type cell consists the reflecting surface of the glass
sheet on one end. The light incident on the front surface of the cell is scattered by the
activated cell.
Types

 According to theory of operation Liquid Crystal Displays are

classified as,

1. Dynamic Scattering LCD

2. Field Effect LCD

Dynamic Scattering
 The liquid becomes transparent when they are not active. But when they are
active their molecules turbulence causes scattered of light in all directions,
and their cell appears bright.
 This type of scattering is known as the dynamic scattering. 
 The construction of the dynamic scattering of the liquid crystal cell is shown in
the figure
Field effect type

 In field effect type LCD the two thin polarising optical fibres

are placed inside the each glass sheet.

 The liquid crystals used in field effect LCDs are of different

scattering types that operated in the dynamic scattering

cell.
LCD Working
Advantages

 Smaller size —LCDs occupy approximately 60 percent less space

than CRT displays an important feature when office space is limited.

 Lower power consumption—LCDs typically consume about half

the power and emit much less heat than CRT displays.

 Lighter weight —LCDs weigh approximately 70 percent less than CRT

displays of comparable size.

 No electromagnetic fields —LCDs do not emit electromagnetic fields

and are not susceptible to them. Thus, they are suitable for use in areas
where CRTs cannot be used.

 Longer life —LCDs have a longer useful life than CRTs.

Disadvantages

1. Poor reliability.
2. Limited temperature range.
3. Poor visibility in low ambient temperature.
4. Slow speed
DIAC- Diode for Alternating current
Construction
OPERATION
case-1 A1- Negative, A2- Positive
case-2 A2- Negative, A1- Positive
Characteristics
TRIAC- Triode for Alternating current
Equivalent circuit
Structure
Operation
MT1-positive.MT 2- Negative
Operation
MT1-Negative.MT 2-Positive
Characteristics
 Different modes of conduction in TRIAC
Gate - +ve, MT1 is -ve , MT2 is +ve
Gate is -ve,
MT1 is +ve, MT2 is +ve
Gate is -ve,
MT1 is +ve, MT2 is -ve
Gate is +ve,
MT1 is +ve, MT2 is -ve
 VARACTOR DIODE

• What is Varactor diode?

• Symbol
• Structure and Working
• Characteristics
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Applications
What is Varactor diode?

The diode whose internal capacitance varies with the variation of

the reverse voltage such type of diode is known as the Varactor
diode. It is used for storing the charge. The varactor diode always
works in reverse bias, and it is a voltage-dependent semiconductor
 device.

Symbol
Working Principle
 The varactor diode operates only in reverse bias. Because of reverse bias, the current does not
flow.
 If the diode is connected in forward biasing the current starts flowing through the diode and
their depletion region become decreases.
 The depletion region does not allow the ions to move from one place to another.
 The Varactor diode is used for storing the charge not for flowing the charge.
 In the forward bias, the total charge stored in the diode becomes zero, which is undesirable.
Thus, the Varactor diode always operates in the reverse bias.
 The formula gives the capacitance of Varactor diode.

Where, ε – Permittivity of the semiconductor material.

A – area of PN-junction
W – width of depletion region
 The capacitance of the varactor diode increases with the increase of n and the p-type region
and decreases
 The increase in capacitance means the more charges are stored in the diode. For increasing
the storage capacity of charge the depletion region (which acts as a dielectric of the capacitor)
of the diode should be kept small.
Advantages
 Low noise
 Portable due to small size
 Light weight and more reliable
 Low-cost

Disadvantages
 Specially designed only to the work in the reverse biased mode,thus it

possess the least significance when operated in forward biasing.

Applications
 FM radio and Tv receivers
 Self-adjusting bride circuits
 Adjustable band pass filters
 Tuning of LC resonant circuits in microwave Frequency multipliers
 Very low noise microwave parametric amplifiers
 PHOTO DIODE

• What is Photo diode?

• Symbol
• Structure and Working
• Characteristics
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Applications
WhatisPhotodiode?

A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light
is known as Photodiode. It is also known as photo detector or photo sensor. It
operates in reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy.

Symb
ol
 Working Principle
• It works on the principle of Photo electric effect.

• The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of

this two-terminal semiconductor device is illuminated then the electric

current starts flowing through it. Only minority current flows through the
device when the certain reverse potential is applied to it.
 Operational Modes of Photodiode

• 
Photodiode basically operates in two modes:
• Photo voltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse

device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place when the device is exp
minority charges a very small reverse current flows through the device that is termed
• The resistance of photo diode with no incident light is called Dark Resistance.

Dark Resistance =
• Photo conductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the de

photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the corres
voltage.
 Characteristics of Photo Diode
Reverse voltage and Reverse current curve Reverse current illumination curve
Advantages of Photodiode
• It shows a quick response when exposed to light.
• Photodiode offers high operational speed.
• It provides a linear response.
• It is a low-cost device.

Disadvantages of Photodiode
• It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.
• When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.

Applications of Photodiode
• Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
• Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
• Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
• It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure to
radiation is not interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy fails to fall on the
device, it sounds the alarm.
 Tunnel Diode
• What is Tunnel Diode?
• Symbol
• Structure and Working
• Characteristics
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Applications
 Tunnel Diode
What is Tunnel Diode?

• A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric current
decreases as the voltage increases.
• A tunnel diode is also known as Esaki diode which is named after Leo Esaki for
his work on the tunneling effect.
• The operation of tunnel diode depends on the quantum mechanics principle
known as “Tunneling”.
• In electronics, tunneling means a direct flow of electrons across the small
depletion region from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence band. 
Symbol
Construction of Tunnel diode

P+
Metal conta
Junction

N+
 Width of the depletion region in tunnel dode

 Unlike the normal p-n junction diode, the width of a depletion layer in tunnel
diode is extremely narrow. So applying a small voltage is enough to produce
electric current in tunnel diode.
Tunneling Effect
 How tunnel diode works?

Step 1: Unbiased tunnel diode

 When no voltage is applied to
the tunnel diode, it is said to be
an unbiased tunnel diode. In
tunnel diode, the conduction
band of the n-type material
overlaps with the valence band
of the p-type material because
of the heavy doping.

 However, the net current flow

will be zero because an equal
number of charge carriers (free
electrons and holes) flow in
opposite directions.
Step 2: Small voltage applied to the tunnel diode

 When a small voltage is applied to the

tunnel diode which is less than the
built-in voltage of the depletion layer,
no forward current flows through the
junction.

 However, a small number of electrons

in the conduction band of the n-region
will tunnel to the empty states of the
valence band in p-region. This will
create a small forward bias tunnel
current. Thus, tunnel current starts
flowing with a small application of
voltage.
Step 3: Applied voltage is slightly
increased
 When the voltage applied to the
tunnel diode is slightly increased, a
large number of free electrons at n-
side and holes at p-side are
generated. Because of the increase in
voltage, the overlapping of the
conduction band and valence band is
increased.

 In simple words, the energy level of

an n-side conduction band becomes
exactly equal to the energy level of a
p-side valence band. As a result,
maximum tunnel current flows.
Step 4: Applied voltage is further increased
• If the applied voltage is further
increased, a slight misalign of the
conduction band and valence band takes
place. 

• Since the conduction band of the n-type

material and the valence band of the p-
type material sill overlap. The electrons
tunnel from the conduction band of n-
region to the valence band of p-region
and cause a small current flow. Thus, the
tunneling current starts decreasing.
Step 5: Applied voltage is largely increased

• If the applied voltage is largely increased,

the tunneling current drops to zero. If this
applied voltage is greater than the built-in
potential of the depletion layer, the regular
forward current starts flowing through the
tunnel diode.

• The portion of the curve in which current

decreases as the voltage increases is the
negative resistance region of the tunnel
diode. The negative resistance region is the
most important and most widely used
characteristic of the tunnel diode. A tunnel
diode operating in the negative resistance
region can be used as an amplifier or an
oscillator.
 V-I Characteristics of Tunnel Diode

• Due to forward biasing, because of

heavy doping conduction happens in
the diode. The maximum current that a
diode reaches is Ip and voltage applied
is Vp. The current value decreases,
when more amount of voltage is
applied. Current keeps decreasing until
it reaches a minimal value.

• The small minimal value of current is

Iv. From the above graph, it is seen
that from point A to B current reduces
when voltage increases. That is the
negative resistance region of diode. In
this region, tunnel diode produces
power instead of absorbing it.
Advantages of tunnel diodes
• Long life
• High-speed operation
• Low noise
• Low power consumption

Disadvantages of tunnel diodes

• Tunnel diodes cannot be fabricated in large numbers
• Being a two terminal device, the input and output are not isolated from
one another.
Applications of tunnel diodes
• Tunnel diodes are used as logic memory storage devices.
• Tunnel diodes are used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
• Tunnel diode is used as an ultra high-speed switch.
• Tunnel diodes are used in FM receivers.
 SCR(Silicon Controlled Rectifier)
What is SCR?
• The Symbol of the SCR will be similar to that of the diode, additionally; it

has a gate terminal as shown below. The SCR is a unidirectional device that
allows the current to flow in one direction and opposes it in another
direction. SCR has three terminals namely Anode (A), Cathode (K) and gate
(G), it can be turned ON or OFF by controlling the biasing conditions or the
gate input.

Symbol
Construction of SCR

 The SCR is a four-layered semiconductor

device that forms NPNP or PNPN structure,
which eventually forms three junctions J1, J2,
and J3. Among the three terminals of the SCR,
the Anode is a positive electrode, it will be on
the P-layer and Cathode is a negative
electrode, it will be on the N-layer of the SCR,
the Gate acts as a control terminal of the SCR.

 The outer P and N layers where the two

electrodes are placed will be heavily doped
and the middle P and N layers will be lightly
doped, the gate terminal will be connected to
the P-layer in the middle. The SCRs are
Two Transistor Analogy of SCR
 Working Of SCR

To understand the SCR working principle we have to look

into the different ways it can operate. Depending on the

polarity of the voltage applied and the gate pulse given to the
SCR, it can operate in three different modes such as
1.Forward Blocking mode

2.Forward Conduction mode

3.Reverse Blocking mode
Forward Blocking Mode 
When gate is open
 J1 and J3 will be forward biased

 J2 will be reverse biased.

Since J2 is reverse biased the width of

the depletion region increases and it
acts as an obstacle for conduction, so
only a small amount of current will be
flowing from J1 to J3.

• Increasing applied voltage :  reaches

to breakdown voltage of the SCR,

the junction J2 - In this mode of
operation, the SCR is forward biased,
Forward Conduction Mode 
• The Forward Conduction Mode is the only mode
at which the SCR will be in the ON state and
will be conducting. We can make the SCR
conduct in two different ways, one we can
increase the applied forward bias voltage
beyond the breakdown voltage or else we can
apply a positive voltage to the gate terminal.

• If you want to use the SCR for low voltage

applications you can apply a positive voltage to
the gate of the SCR. The applied positive
voltage will help the SCR to move to the
conduction state. During this mode of operation,
the SCR will be operating in forward bias and
current will be flowing through it.
 Reverse Blocking Mode
 
When Gate open
the positive voltage is applied to the Cathode (-)
and the Negative voltage is given to the Anode
Junction(+)
J1 and J3 will be reverse biased
J2 will be forward biased
there will be a small leakage current flowing
due to the drift charge carriers in the forward-
biased Junction J2, it is not enough to turn on the
SCR.
V-I Characteristics of SCR
Advantages:
The SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) can handle large voltage, current and power.


The Triggering circuit for silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is simple. The SCR is easy to turn ON.


It is able to control AC power.



It is simple to control.


It cost is low.


Disadvantages:
The SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) is unidirectional devices, so it can control power only in DC

power during positive half cycle of AC supply, thus only DC power is controlled with the help of
SCR.
The gate current cannot be negative.


In AC circuit, it needs to be turned on each cycle.



It cannot be used at higher frequencies.


Applications of SCR
Mainly used in variable speed motor drives.
Used in controlling high power electrical application.
Used mainly in AC motors, lights, welding machines etc.
Used in fault current limiter and circuit breaker.
Fast switching speed and low conduction is possible in ETO
thyristor.
Used as light dimmers in television, movie theatres.
Used in photography for flashes.
Can be used in burglar alarms.
Used in electric fan speed control.
Used in car ignition switches.