Research: LTC Arlene M Mandal NC

AFP 2028: World-class, Source of National Pride
RESEARCH
LTC ARLENE M MANDAL NC
AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Differentiate the various research designs in
terms of uses, strength and weakness
Differentiate probability and non-probability
sampling
Discuss the different sampling methods in terms
of uses, advantages and disadvantages
Discuss the importance of research instruments
and measures to ensure its reliability and validity
Choose appropriate research design for a chosen
research problem

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
DESIGN & PLANNING PHASE Conceptual

Phase
 Selecting an appropriate research
design
 Specifying the population
Dissemination Design &
 Specifying the methods
Phase Planning Phase
 Designing the plan for selecting
the sample
 Finalizing and reviewing all
aspects of the research plan
 Conducting a pilot study and
Empirical
Analytic Phase
making revisions
Phase

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Setting of the study – field or laboratory
2. Timing of data collection :
- Prospective or Longitudinal
- Retrospective or historical
- Cross-sectional
3. Sample collection – randomness and
accessibility
4. Type of data – qualitative or quantitative
5. Issues of control
- Internal validity – result attributed to
independent variable.
- External validity – refers to the degree to
which the findings are generalizable to target
population. Promoted by random sampling.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Textbook: Research design refers to the overall

strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent
and logical way thereby, ensuring you will
effectively address the research problem.
SFTM: It is your recipe for your research. What

are you making? How will it look? What
ingredients do you need? How will you cook and
serve it?
You can also think of research design as

blueprint for collecting, measuring, and
analyzing data.

Research Designs According to

Purpose of Study
• Exploratory Studies – when little is known
about the phenomenon of interest.
•Descriptive Studies – when enough information

exists to examine relationships between
variables
• Explanatory Studies – search for causal

explanations and are much more rigorous than
exploratory or descriptive studies; usually
experimental in nature

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Document or content analysis
• The major difference is that historical research deals solely with the past
whereas document analysis used as qualitative research these also with
current documents and issues.
• Sources of Data: records, reports, printed forms, letters, autobiographies, diaries,
compositions, themes/ academic works, books, periodicals, bulletins or catalogues,
syllabi, court decisions, pictures, films, and cartoons.
• Possible objectives for document analysis
1) To describe prevailing practices or conditions
2) To discover the relative importance of, or interest in, certain topics or problems
3) To discover the level of difficulty of presentations in textbooks in other publications
4) To evaluate bias, prejudice, or propaganda in textbook presentation.
“The Philippines as presented in High School History Textbook”
5) To analyze types of error in students’ work “Errors in English Usage Found
in Letters of Application for Admission to De la Salle University”

The Case Study
• A way of organizing data for the purpose of viewing social
reality.
• It examines a social unit (a person, a family, a social
group, a social institution, or a community) as a whole.
• The purpose is to understand the life cycle or an
important part of the life cycle of the unit.
• It proves deeply and analyzes interactions between the
factors that explain present status or that influence
change growth.
• It is a longitudinal approach, showing development over a
period of time.

The Case Study
Ways to gather data.
a. Observation by the researcher or his/her informants of
behavior, physical characteristics, or social qualities.
b. Interviews with the subject(s), relatives, friends,
teachers, councilors, and others.
c. Questionnaires, opinionnaires, psychological tests, and
inventories.
d. Recorded data from newspapers, schools, courts,
clinics, government agencies or other sources.
• Can be a single case-study - widely used in medicine >
case studies of patients, but not confined with individuals
& behaviors.

Ethnographic Studies
• Ethnography or cultural anthropology or naturalistic inquiry is a

method of field study observation that became popular in the
latter part of the 19th century.
• It consisted of participant observation, conversation, and
the use of informants to study the cultural characteristics
of primitive people.
• Refers to both data gathering and development of analysis of
specific people, settings, or ways of life.
• Ex. Multilingualism: An Ethnographic Study on Marano School
Children in Sorsogon City, Philippines
• The researcher conducted this study to identify speech
varieties learned and used by Maranao school children in their
homes, community, madrasah (school)

Selecting a Research Design

THEORY DEVELOPMENT DESIGN OPTIONS
AIM AND PURPOSE
Identification
or description Descriptive design, grounded-
of phenomenon (concept) theory study, ethnography,
phenomenologic inquiry, case
Identification of relevant study
concepts
Description of prevalence or Descriptive survey

incidence of a phenomenon


AIM AND PURPOSE
Estimation
of the value of a Descriptive survey
phenomenon
Description of patterns Descriptive longitudinal design,
(stability or change) of time series design
phenomena over time
Exploration of differences or Exploratory designs,
relationships between correlational or comparative
phenomena survey, case study


AIM AND PURPOSE
Explanatory survey
Explanationand prediction Cross-sectional
of phenomena Retrospective
Prospective
Experimental, including single
case study, quasi-
experiments
Prescription
Clinical trial, evaluation
and control research designs

Types of Study Design
Measurement of Disease
Type of design Measure of Association
Frequency
• Prevalence odds ratio

Cross-sectional Prevalence proportion
• Prevalence ratio
Incidence cannot be
Case-control • Odds ratio
computed
• Risk ratio
Cohort Incidence rate
• Risk difference
Incidence
• Risk ratio
Experimental Means
• Risk difference
Proportions

RESEARCH DESIGN
RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL
An experimental, prospective study in which "participants

are randomly allocated into an experimental group or a
control group and followed over time for the
variables/outcomes of interest.
Study participants are randomly assigned to ensure that each

participant has an equal chance of being assigned to an
experimental or control group, thereby reducing potential bias.
Outcomes of interest may be death (mortality), a specific

disease state (morbidity), or even a numerical measurement
such as blood chemistry level.

RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL

Quasi-Experimental Designs
Nonequivalent control group pretest-

post test design:
O1 X O2
O1 O2
* No randomization

Quasi-Experimental Designs
Time series design:

O 1 O 2 03 O 4 X O 5 O6 O7 O8

Non-experimental Designs
(no manipulation by the researcher)
1. Survey studies
• Conducting studies using surveys that
researchers send to survey respondents.
• usually self-report data from
questionnaires and interviews
• sampling technique is very important to
generalize results to target population

1. Survey studies
Advantages:
 can obtain large amount of data quickly
 minimal cost
 easy, convenient
Limitation:
 self-report responses may be
unreliable

2. Correlational studies
• examines strength of relationships
between variables
• Caution:
• may not be appropriate to identify an
independent & dependent variable
• does not examine cause-effect
relationship

2. Correlational studies
Purpose: to understand what kind of
relationships among phenomena as they
naturally occur without researcher
intervention.
Example 2.1
Group A O
------------------
Group B O
Smoking status:
- some are smoking
- others are not
3. Comparative Studies - examine the

differences between groups, shows how
two subjects are similar or how two
subjects are different.
Ex. Researcher compares a group of high

school dropouts with a group of high school
students who have not drop out of school.

3. Comparative Studies
3.1 Retrospective (ex post facto) -
dependent variable (effect) is identified in
the present (e.g. a disease condition), and
an attempt is made to determine the
independent variable (cause of the disease
or risk factor) that occurred in the past.

3. Comparative Studies
3.2 Prospective Studies - independent
variable (e.g. high cholesterol level) is
identified at the present time, and then
subjects are followed in the future to
observe the dependent variable (e.g.
incidence of coronary artery disease); may
also use an experimental approach

4. Methodological Studies - concerned with

the development, testing, and evaluation
of research instruments and methods.

Epidemiologic Designs
A. Observational Studies
Cohort Study : focus is on risk factor by studying
a group or cohort
- Retrospective
- Prospective
Case-Control Study : those with disease and
without disease are studied in terms of
certain risk factors of interest
Cross-sectional Study : both risk factor and
disease are examined at the same point in
time

RESEARCH DESIGN
COHORT STUDIES
An observational, prospective or retrospective study
RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES
Begin and end in the present but involve a major backward glance
to collect information about events that occurred in the past .
Conducted on data that have already been collected (hospital
records). Saves time and expense.
PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDIES

Extremely time-consuming
In that time, study participants may be lost to follow up, potentially
biasing the results
Involves identification of two groups (cohorts) of patients, one that

received the exposure of interest, and one that did not, and following
these cohorts forward for the outcome of interest

COHORT STUDIES

COHORT STUDIES

RESEARCH DESIGN
CASE-CONTROL STUDY
An observational, retrospective study

- Involves identifying patients who have the outcome of interest (cases) and
control patients without the same outcome, and looking back to see if they
had the exposure of interest
RETROSPECTIVE CASE-CONTROL STUDIES

- Rely on people’s memories, making them prone to error.
- Difficult to measure the exact amount of an exposure in the past
- This method is inexact at best

CASE-CONTROL STUDY

CASE-CONTROL STUDY

RESEARCH DESIGN
CASE SERIES
A descriptive report on a series of patients with an outcome of

interest. No control group is involved
Provide the weakest evidence of the study types examined since

they describe a relatively small number of patients and no
experimental manipulation is involved
Simply descriptive reports of single patients

Used to introduce practitioners to unusual and rare conditions, or to
point out “exceptions to the rule”

CASE SERIES
RESEARCH DESIGN

CASE SERIES
Example:
During 1950, 8 cases of lung cancer were admitted to different hospitals

during the same period of time. Taking history from these patient’s,
showed that they were miners. This unusual circumstance suggested
that the miners may been exposed to something. Investigating this
circumstance showed high concentration of radon gas. A hypothesis
was formulated that lung cancer is related to exposure to radon gas.

Epidemiologic Designs
B. Experimental Studies
• Clinical Trials
• Community Trials

VALIDITY – refers to how accurately a

method measures what is intended to MEASURE.
INTERNAL
EXTERNAL
- If research has high validity, that means it produces

results that corresponds to real variation, properties,
characteristics.


Validity
•Internal Validity -- A research study or experiment

has internal validity if the outcome is a function of
the variables that are measured, controlled or
manipulated in the study. Did in fact the experimental
treatments make a difference in this specific
instance?
•Artifact -- If the results of a research study or

experiment are due to some factor or factors outside
of the study then the results are said to be an artifact.

Threats to Internal Validity
•History - occurrence of external events that take place concurrently with the independent
variable that can affect the dependent variables of interest
•Selection - biases resulting from pre-existing differences between groups
•Instrumentation - reflects changes in the researcher’s measuring instruments between an
initial point of data collection and a subsequent point
•Maturation - processes occurring within the subjects during the course of the study as a
result of the passage of time rather than as a result of the treatment or independent variable
•Testing Effect - effects of taking a pretest on the posttest scores
•Mortality - threat that arises from differential attrition from the groups being compared

Threat to Internal Validity Controlling Threat
Random selection, random

History
assignment
Subject matching,
Maturation
randomization
Testing Control group
Instrumental consistency,
Instrumentation assure alternative form
reliability
Random selection, random

Selection
assignment
Mortality Subject matching and omission

Validity
•External Validity -- A research study or

experiment has external validity if the results
obtained would apply to other similar programs
or approaches.
•Generalizability -- The degree to which the

results of a research study or experiment can be
generalized to other groups, settings or
situations.

Threats to External Validity

• Hawthorne Effect - subjects may behave in a particular
manner because they are aware of their participation
in a study
• Novelty Effects - results may reflect behavior or

reactions while treatment is new; once the treatment is
more familiar, the same results may fail to appear
• Interaction of History and Treatment Effect - results

may reflect the impact of the treatment and some other
events external to the study
• Experimenter Effect - performance of subjects may be
affected by characteristics of the researchers
• Measurement Effect - results may not apply to another
group of people who are not also exposed to the same
data collection procedures

Threat to External
Controlling Threat
Validity
Demand Characteristics Blind study, control group
Hawthorne Effect Control group
Counterbalancing
Order Effects treatment order, multiple
groups
Treatment Interaction Subject matching,
Effects naturalistic observation

CLASSIFICATION
MANIPULATED
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SUBJECTS RESEARCH DESIGN (Exptal, Quasi-, or
VARIABLES Pre-Exptal)
How effective is a medication discharge Participation versus 26 patients in Randomized pre-
planning program for patients with nonparticipation in experimental test and post test
congestive heart failure in terms of reducing medication discharge program, 28 patients True experiment
hospital readmission? (Schneider, planning program in control group
Homberger, Booker, Davis, & Kralicek, 1993)
What is the relative efficacy of specialized Specialized versus 448 women in
and traditional AIDS education programs on traditional AIDS specialized program,
behavioral and psychological outcomes Education Program 410 in traditional
among poor women of color? (Nyamathi, program
Leake, Flaskerud, Lewis and Bennet, 1993)
Is a special community-based mental health Nurses’ participation in 237 primary care Pre-experimental
training program effective in increasing the special program nurses in essence not
primary nurses’ knowledge and skills relating experimental in
to depression? (Badger, Mischel, Biocca, & nature
Cardea, 1991)
How do four different methods of securing Method of securing 120 intensive care
endotracheal tube in orally intubated endotracheal tubes unit patients (30 per
patients compare in terms of tube stability, (Lillihie harness, Comfit, method)
facial skin integrity and patient satisfaction? Dale and Secure Easy)
( Kaplow & Bookbinder, 1994)

CLASSIFICATION
MANIPULATED RESEARCH
RESEARCH QUESTIONS SUBJECTS (Exptal, Quasi-, or
VARIABLES DESIGN
Pre-Exptal)
What is the relative effectiveness of two Participation in a 50 women in
different educational methods (a comprehensive experimental group,
comprehensive class and ad information (experimental class 53 women in
session with a brochure) in encouraging versus information comparison group
breast self-examination among rural session
women? (Kuhns- Hastings, Brakey, and
Marshall, 1993)
What is the effect of dietary fiber and fluid Participation in a dietary 15 laxative-
intervention in the number of bowel fiber and fluid program dependent nursing
movements and frequency of elimination home residents
among rural women? (Kuhns- Hastings,
Brakey, and Marshall, 1993)
Receipt of child
26 in child
behavioral information
behavioral
What is the effect of informational versus non-receipt;
information group;
interventions on mothers’ and children’s receipt of parental role 22 in parental role
ability to cope with an unplanned childhood information versus non-information group;
hospitalization? (Melnyk, 1994) receipt 23 in group with
neither, 27 in group
with both
What is the effect of boomerang pillow in Placement of patient on 42 patients
the respiratory capacity of hospitalized boomerang pillows exposed to both
patients? (Roberts, Brittin, Cook, & versus straight pillows types of pillows in
deClifford, 1994) random order

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AFP 2028: World-class, Source of National Pride

LTC ARLENE M MANDAL NC

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

DESIGN & PLANNING PHASE Conceptual

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Textbook: Research design refers to the overall

SFTM: It is your recipe for your research. What

You can also think of research design as

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Research Designs According to

•Descriptive Studies – when enough information

• Explanatory Studies – search for causal

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

• Ethnography or cultural anthropology or naturalistic inquiry is a

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Selecting a Research Design

Description of prevalence or Descriptive survey

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Selecting a Research Design

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Selecting a Research Design

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

• Prevalence odds ratio

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

An experimental, prospective study in which "participants

Study participants are randomly assigned to ensure that each

Outcomes of interest may be death (mortality), a specific

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Nonequivalent control group pretest-

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

Time series design:

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

(no manipulation by the researcher)

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

3. Comparative Studies - examine the

Ex. Researcher compares a group of high

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

4. Methodological Studies - concerned with

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

PROSPECTIVE COHORT STUDIES

Involves identification of two groups (cohorts) of patients, one that

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

An observational, retrospective study

RETROSPECTIVE CASE-CONTROL STUDIES

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State

AFP Core Purpose: Protector of the People and the State