MEE 364 Automotive Aerodynamics

Lecture 3.1

Sources : wikipedia.org; H.Schlicting; Lee and Huang (1988),

www.worldscibooks.com/etextbook/6248/chapter 01.pdf ;
http://www.bakker.org/dartmouth06/engs150/11-bl.pdf
 Outline
 3.1 Fundamentals of Wake Formation

 3.2 Case Study I: Wake Behind a Cylinder in Steady Flow

 3.2.1 Mechanism of Wake Formation
 3.2.2 Vortex Shedding
 3.2.3 Mechanism of Vortex Shedding
 3.2.4 Vortex Shedding Frequency
 3.2.5 Impact of wake on Drag on a Cylinder

 3.3 Case Study II : Wake Behind “Ahmed Body” and Drag

 3.3.1 Ahmed Body : Simplified Geometry
 3.3.2 Variation of CD with Slant Angle of Ahmed Body

 3.4 Summary
 3.1 Fundamentals of Wake Formation
 Definition : A wake is the region of low pressure, recirculating flow
immediately behind a moving or stationary solid body, caused by the flow of
surrounding fluid around the body.
 In incompressible fluids (liquids) such as water, a bow wake is created when a
watercraft moves through the medium; as the medium cannot be compressed,
it must be displaced instead, resulting in a wave.
 Wake or low pressure vortex forms due to boundary layer separation .
 Mixing of the free stream potential fluid with the shear fluid from the
boundary layer produces the secondary vortical flow region known as a wake.
 Laminar wakes formed due to separation of laminar boundary layer tend to be
larger in size but lower in strength
 Turbulent wakes form much farther behind the obstacle due to a more
resilient boundary layer.
 Turbulent wakes are more intense but smaller in size and occur much farther
behind a bluff body.
Wakes spread until the energy is dissipated by friction or
dispersion.
For blunt bodies in subsonic flow, the wake behind the object can
be massive.
Flow in such regions is usually reversed and towards the object.
Extensive modeling and experimentation deployed to understand
turbulent wakes.
Wakes also induce drag, pressure oscillations and pressure drag.
Low pressures in wakes are due to vortex shedding from the
trailing edge, which increases the local velocity and lowers the
local pressure.
Wakes tend to be highly transient, lowering the lift and
increasing the drag, while producing noise and vibrations.
 Figure 3.1 : Atmospheric Cloud Wakes

Wave cloud pattern in the wake of the

Île Amsterdam(lower left, at the "tip" of the Cloud wakes from the [Juan
triangular formation of clouds) in the southern Fernández Islands]].
Indian Ocean.
 Figure 3.2 : Examples for Turbulent Wake

Wake behind a heaving airfoil

Wake behind a golf ball

Figure 3.3 : Influence of Reynolds # on Wake
Formation
 3.2 Case Study I : Wake Behind a Cylinder in Steady Flow
3.2.1 Mechanism of Wake Formation :

 Reynolds number [Re = u∞D/ν : (3.1)] determines the flow regime.

 Two distinct flow regimes, namely wake, and boundary layer can be
observed.
 Wake is larger and extends over a distance comparable to “D”.
 Boundary layer, however, is smaller and extends over distance δ.
 Figure 3.4 depicts these two flow regimes behind a cylinder.
 Boundary layer separation leads to the formation of the low pressure
wake.
 The onset of formation and size of the wake depends on the Re #
(Fig. 3.5).
Figure 3.4 : Wake and Boundary Layer behind a Cylinder

Figure 3.5 : Influence of Re # on Flow Behind a Cylinder
No boundary layer separation at very low Re.
B.L separation first occurs for Re = 5.
For 5 < Re < 40, a fixed pair of vortices forms behind the cylinder.
When the Re is increased further, the wake becomes unstable.
Further increase in Re #, leads to vortex shedding.
Vortices are shed alternately from either side of the cylinder at a certain
frequency.
Vortex shedding leads to formation of a “vortex street”.
However, this periodic and alternating vortex shedding is destroyed at
much higher Re, when the boundary layer becomes turbulent only on
one side.
 Vortices are now shed more irregularly, without any definite alternating
periodicity.
At even higher Re, when transition to turbulence is complete on both
sides of the cylinder, periodic vortex shedding is re-established.
For 40 < Re < 200, the vortex street is laminar.
 The shedding is essentially 2-D.
 It doesn’t vary span wise.
At higher Re, transition to turbulence occurs in the wake.
The point of transition moves towards the cylinder for 200 <
Re < 300.
For Re = 400, turbulent vortices, with 3-D spanwise
fluctuations, are formed.
For Re > 300, wake is completely turbulent.
 However, the boundary layer on the cylinder itself is laminar.
 This regime of flow for 300 < Re < 3 x 105 is called the sub-critical
flow regime.
At higher Re #, transition to turbulence occurs within the
boundary layer itself.
Transition first occurs at the B.L separation point.
For higher Re #, transition moves upstream towards the
stagnation point.
In the narrow range of 3 x 105 < Re < 3.5 x 105, boundary layer
becomes turbulent at stagnation point.
But this occurs only on one side.
Flow is laminar on the other side of the cylinder.
This lack of symmetry leads to a lift on the cylinder (Fig. 3.6)
This flow regime is called the critical regime.
Figure 3.6 : Non Zero Mean Lift on Cylinder in Critical
Regime
The side at which separation is turbulent switches from one
side to the other.
As the one-sided transition to turbulence changes from one
side to the other, lift changes direction.
 For 3.5 x 105 < Re < 1.5 x 106, the flow regime is super-critical.
In this regime, boundary layer separation is turbulent on both
sides of the cylinder.
Transition to turbulence in the boundary layer is not yet
complete.
 Transition occurs between the stagnation point and the
separation point.
For Re = 1.5 x 106, boundary layer becomes completely
turbulent on one side, while it remains laminar-turbulent on
the other side.
This upper transition flow regime prevails between 1.5
x 106 < Re < 4.5 x 106.
The boundary layer is turbulent every where on the
cylinder surface for Re > 4.5 x 106.
This regime is called the trans-critical regime.
3.2.2 Vortex Shedding :

 Vortex shedding is common on a cylinder for Re > 40.
 Boundary layer separates due to adverse pressure gradient from
divergent geometry of cylinder towards read end.
 Separation of the B.L forms a shear layer (Fig. 3.7).
 Boundary layer on the cylinder surface contains significant amount
of vorticity.
 This vorticity is fed into the shear layer.
 This vorticity causes the shear layer to roll up into a vortex with a
sign identical to that of the incoming vorticity.
 A contra-rotating vortex is formed on the other side of the cylinder
(Fig. 3.8)
Figure 3.7 : Shear Layer due to B.L Separation

Shear layers roll up on both sides to form lee-wake vortices A and B

Figure 3.8 : Velocity and Vorticity in the B.L
3.2.3 Mechanism of Vortex Shedding :

The vortex pair (A &B) created in the shear layer is unstable

for Re > 40.
Even small disturbances can rupture the vortex pattern.
Hence, one vortex pattern will grow larger than the other for
Re > 40.
The larger vortex A in Fig. 3.9 becomes strong enough to draw
the opposing vortex B across the wake.
Vorticity in “A” is in the clockwise direction, while that in “B”
is counter-clockwise.
The approach of the negative vortex cuts off further supply of
vorticity to “A” from the boundary layer.
Figure 3.9 Vortex Shedding
This leads to the shedding of vortex “A”.
Since it’s a free vortex, “A” is convected downstream by the flow.
Following the shedding of “A”, a new vortex “C” is formed on the
same side of the cylinder.
Vortex “B” now does the same as “A”, by dragging vortex “C” across
the wake.
The repeat of the process by “B” leads to its shedding.
Hence, vortices are shed alternately on both sides of the cylinder.
Vortex shedding only occurs when two shear layers collide with each
other.
However, at high Re ≥ 5 x 106 , boundary layer is fully turbulent on
only one side, and periodic/alternating vortex shedding is replaced
by irregular vortex shedding.
For Re > 4 x 106, transition to turbulence is complete on both sides of
the cylinder, and periodic vortex shedding resumes.
3.2.4 Vortex Shedding Frequency :

Normalized vortex shedding frequency is known as the

Strouhal number, St.
Vortex shedding frequency, is normalized with the flow
velocity u∞ and cylinder diameter D.
fvu
St = (3.2)
D
Figure 3.10 shows the variation of the Strouhal number with
the flow regime.
Figure 3.10 Strouhal # for a Cylinder
Experimental data
Solid curve : Williamson (1989)
Dashed curve : Roshko (1961)
Dots : Schewe (1983)
Vortex shedding first appears at Re = 40, with a St = 0.1
Strouhal gradually increases with Re. At Re =300, St = 0.2
 Re = 300 is the lower end of the sub-critical regime.
For the remainder of the sub-critical regime St = 0.2 and constant.
Vortex shedding in the sub-critical regime occurs in a well defined
and regular manner (Fig. 3.11).
In the critical Re regime (3 – 3.5 x 105) St suddenly increases from
0.2 to 0.45.
This high value of St is maintained over most of the super-critical
Re range.
Subsequently, it decreases slightly with increasing Re.
Figure 3.11 Power Spectra of Lift Oscillations from
Schewe’s (1983) data
In the super-critical regime, the boundary layer on both
sides of the cylinder is turbulent at the separation points.
This delays the separation of the boundary layer as the
separation points move downstream.
 Consequently, the vortices which are much closer, interact
faster.
This vigorous interaction yields a higher St #.
At Re = 7.2 x 105, vortex shedding is still orderly (sharp spike
in the narrow band, power spectrum).
However, since the magnitude of the spectrum is low, the
shed vortices are not as strong as in the sub-critical regime.
Hence, induced lift is also weak in the super-critical regime.
Vortex shedding frequency also indicates the quadrupole type
wind noise produced due to interaction of the shear layers.
Pressure distribution and hence aerodynamic drag are also
affected by vortex shedding.
In the transition regime, Re = 1.5 x 106, transition to turbulence
in one of the boundary layers is complete.
Asymmetry (non symmetric) results as one side of the B.L is
fully turbulent, while the other is laminar-turbulent.
Lack of symmetry in vortex formation leads to lessened
interaction, thereby disorderly vortex shedding.
Regular vortex shedding is re-established for Re > 4.5 x 106, for
which St = 0.25-0.3.
3.2.5 Impact of Wake on Drag on a Cylinder

1
Drag : D = CD (  u 2 A  ) (3.3)
2
Total drag = viscous drag + profile drag
At Re < 1, inertial forces are negligible.
 Viscous and pressure forces dominate.
For 1 < Re < 103, vortex shedding occurs in a periodic manner.
When 103 < Re < 105, laminar boundary layer separation occurs.
 Due to adverse pressure gradient, laminar b.l grows in thickness.
 At higher Re #s, transition to turbulence occurs.

 Due to delayed b.l separation in turbulent flow, drag drops.

 3.3 Case Study II : Wake Behind Ahmed
Body and Drag
3.3.1 Ahmed Body : Simplified Geometry
The “Ahmed Body” is a simplified geometry that allows
parametric studies.
Ahmed investigated the effect of the rear slant angle on wake
formation and drag.
30° is believed to be the critical rear end slant angle.
 Beyond that, the rear wake vortex pattern ruptures (for a fastback).
The aspect ratio (width to height) also influences the rear wake
size and overall drag.
A critical AR (aspect ratio) was also proposed for the Ahmed
body, for determining variations in wake and drag.
Figure 3.12 Ahmed Body and CD vs Slant
Angle

Ahmed Body CD vs φ
 3.3.2 Drag vs Slant Angle(Fastback)
Influence of rear end slant angle (φ) on wake size and
drag is shown in Fig. 3.12.
The wake intensifies and drag rises upto φ = 30°.
Beyond that the vortex pattern ruptures and becomes
unstable.
Breakdown of the vortex pattern drops drag suddenly.
However, the decrease in drag isn’t dramatic.
At φ = 40°, CD for a fast back is ~0.275, which is 20% more
than drag at φ = 18°(0.23).
Hence, it is advisable to completely avoid the new flow regime.
 3.4 : Summary
 Wake is a low pressure area of re-circulation (vorticity) due to boundary layer
separation.
 The vorticity drawn from the separated boundary layer into the free shear layer
forms the wake zone.
 Low pressure wakes increase aerodynamic drag.
 The stability of the wake depends on the flow Re.
 Vortex shedding in the wake can be observed for Re > 40, as the wake becomes
highly unstable.
 The frequency of vortex shedding coincides the wind noise, and flow induced
vibrations.
 Vortex shedding also influences the local lift forces.
 Rear end slant angle in vehicles determines the rear wake intensity and overall
drag.
 Increasing slant angle beyond 30° decreases the drag suddenly due to vortex
rupture.
 However, for a fast back, the reduced drag for φ > 30°, is still 20% higher than
the lowest drag at smaller slant angles .
 Hence, the new flow regime for φ > 30°, should be avoided in design.