Computer

Organization
Foundations of Computer Science ã Cengage Learning 1
We divide a computer into three subsystem:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU).
2. Main Memory .
3. the input/output subsystem.

Computer hardware (subsystems)

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1. CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The central processing unit (CPU) performs operations
on data. In most architectures it has three parts:
I. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
II. Control unit .
III. Registers(fast storage locations).
I. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
It performs logic, shift and arithmetic operations on data.
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II. Control Unit
The control unit controls the operation of each
subsystem. Controlling is achieved through signals sent
from the control unit to other subsystems.
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III. Registers
Registers are fast stand-alone storage locations that hold
data temporarily. Multiple registers are needed to
facilitate the operation of the CPU. we have three types
of registers :
1. Data Registers (DR) : used to hold the input data and
the result of the operations.
2. Instruction Register (IR): used to hold programs (the
CPU is responsible for fetching instruction one by
one from memory).
3. Program counter which keeps track of the instruction
currently being executed.
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2. MAIN MEMORY
It consists of a collection of storage locations, each with
a unique identifier, called an address. Data is
transferred to and from memory in groups of bits called
words. A word can be a group of 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits
or 64 bits (and growing). If the word is 8 bits, it is
referred to as a byte. The term “byte” is so common in
computer science

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Memory types
Two main types of memory exist:
1. RAM (Random access memory)
A. Static RAM (SRAM).
B. Dynamic RAM (DRAM).
2. ROM (Read-only memory): written by
manufacturers, the CPU can read from ROM but
cannot write into it.
A. Programmable read-only memory (PROM).
B. Erasable programmable read-only memory
(EPROM).
C.Electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory (EEPROM).
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Memory Hierarchy
Computer users need a lot of memory, especially memory that is
very fast and inexpensive. This demand is not always possible to
satisfy—very fast memory is usually not cheap. A compromise
needs to be made. The solution is hierarchical levels of memory.

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Cache memory
Cache memory is faster than main memory, but slower
than the CPU and its registers. Cache memory, which is
normally small in size, is placed between the CPU and
main memory.

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3. INPUT/OUTPUT SUBSYSTEM
This subsystem allows a computer to communicate with
the outside world and to store programs and data even
when the power is off. Input/output devices can be
divided into two broad categories:
1. non-storage devices (they cannot store
information) for examples:
1. Keyboard, Mouse.
2. Monitor.
3. Printer, …etc.
2. storage devices (can store large amounts of
information to be retrieved at a later time)
auxiliary storage devices.
1. Magnetic. 2. optical. 10
Magnetic storage device
Magnetic storage device use magnetization to store bits
of data. If a location is magnetized, it represent 1 and if
not magnetized then it represent 0. examples
1. Magnetic disk .
2. Magnetic tape.

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Optical storage devices

It uses laser light to store and retrieve data examples:

1. CD[Compact Disk].

2. CD ROM, CDR, CD-RW .

3. DVD.

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SUBSYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
it is explore how the three subsystems ( CPU, Memory,
I/O) are interconnected. The interconnection plays an
important role because information needs to be
exchanged between them.
•Connecting CPU and memory
They connected by three groups of connections, each
called a bus:
1. data bus.
2. address bus
3. control bus
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Connecting I/O devices
It cannot be connected directly to the buses that connect
the CPU and memory, because the nature of I/O devices
is different from the nature of CPU and memory. I/O
devices are electromechanical, magnetic, or optical
devices, whereas the CPU and memory are electronic
devices. I/O devices also operate at a much slower speed
than the CPU/memory. There is a need for some sort of
intermediary
to handle this difference. Input/output devices are
therefore attached to the buses through input/output
controllers or interfaces. There is one specific controller
for each input/output device.
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Connecting I/O devices to the buses
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Controller or Interface bridge the gap between the nature
of I/O devices ,CPU and the memory. Several kinds of
controllers are in use.
The most common ones today are
1.SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
2.Firewire
3.USB (Universal Serial Bus)

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