CHAPTER-1

SECTION-1.2

Propositional Equivalences
LECTURES ON

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 Classification of Compound Propositions
 Logical Equivalences

 Constructing new Logical Equivalences

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PROPOSITION

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 A statement in propositional logic which may be either
true or false.
 Each proposition is typically represented by a letter in a
formula.
 Example: "p => q", meaning proposition p
implies proposition q.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND
PROPOSITION

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 A classification of compound propositions according to
their possible truth values is as follows:
 Tautology
 Contradiction
 Contingency

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND
PROPOSITION

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 Tautology:
 A compound proposition that is always true, no matter what
the truth values of the propositions that occur in it, is called a
tautology.
 Contradiction:
 A compound proposition that is always false is called a
contradiction.
 Contingency:
 A compound proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction is called a contingency.

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 EXAMPLES

p p p p p p
T F T F

F T T F
   
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES
 Compound propositions that have the same truth values
in all possible cases are called logically equivalent.

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 Definition:
 Thecompound propositions p and q are called logically
equivalent if is a tautology.
pq
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
 The F
notation F
p ≡ q denotes T q are logically
that p and
equivalent.

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCES (CONTD...)

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 Two ways of showing Logical Equivalences:
 By Truth Table
 By Laws

 Examples:

 Show that ( p  q ) andp   areqlogically

equivalent (using truth table).

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Equivalence Name
p T  p
identity law
pF  p
p T T

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domination law
pF  F
p p  p
idempotent laws
p p  p
(p )  p double negation law
pq  q p
commutative laws
pq  q p
( p  q)  r  p  (q  r )
associative laws
( p  q)  r  p  (q  r )
p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )
distributive law
p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )
( p  q )  p  q
De Morgan's laws
( p  q )  p  q
p  ( p  q)  p
absorption laws
p  ( p  q)  p 9
p  p  T
negation laws
p  p  F
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 Logical Equivalences Involving Conditional Statements:

p  q  p  q
p  q  q  p
 p  q  p q
 Logical Equivalences Involving Biconditionals :

p  q   p  q   q  p
 p  q  p  q
p  q  p  q
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CONSTRUCTING NEW LOGICAL
EQUIVALENCES USING LAWS
Show that (pq)  q and pq are logically equivalent by

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
developing a series of logical equivalences.

 Show that ( p  (p  q ))andp  are qlogically

equivalent by developing a series of logical equivalences.

 Show that ( p  q )  ( p  is q )a tautology.

 Prove: p  p  q is a tautology

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END of Section 1.2

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