PHILOSOPHY

Methods of Philosophizing
 Method of Philosophizing

• Philosophical method or philosophical

methodology is the study of how to do
philosophy. A common view among philosophers
is that philosophy is distinguished by the ways
that philosophers follow in addressing
philosophical questions.
• Truth in metaphysics and the philosophy of
language is the property of sentences,
assertions, beliefs, thoughts, or proportions that
are said, in ordinary discourse, to agree with the
facts or to state what the case is.
 Distiguish Opinion and Truth
FACT OPINION
• Fact is something • Opinion is less
concrete that can be concrete. It’s view
proven. You can find formed in the mind
facts in legal records, of a person about a
scientific, findings, particular issue. In
encyclopedia, other words it is
atlases, etc. In other what someone
words, facts are the believes or thinks,
truth and are and is not
accepted as such. necessarily the truth.
Conclusion is a judgement based
on certain facts.
Beliefs are statements that
expresses convictions that are not
easily and clearly explained by
facts.
Explanations are statements that
assume the claim to be true and
provide reasons why the statement
is true.
Arguments are series of
statements that provide reasons
to convince the reader or listener
that a claim or opinion is truthful.
Fallacies are arguments based
on faulty reasoning.
Bias is disproportionate weight in
favor or against an idea or thing,
usually in a way that is closed-
minded, prejudicial, or unfair.
Argument against the person
“Ad hominem”
• Attacking the
person making the
argument instead of
the argument itself.

Example:
“Just look at that face!
How could anyone
vote for that?”
Appeal to force
“Argumentum ad baculum”

• Using the threat of

force or an
undesirable event to
advance an
argument.

Example:
"It's bedtime. Give me
any sass about it, and
you'll get a spanking!"
Appeal to pity
“ Ad misericordiam”
• Using emotions
such as pity or
sympathy.

Example:
"I know I made a poor
decision. But let's just
look at how hard my job
is."
Appeal to the popular
“Argumentum ad populum”

• The idea is presented

as acceptable because
a lot of people accept
it.

Example:
"I know you'll all
agree with this, ladies
and gentlemen."
Appeal to tradition
“Argumentum ad antiquitan”
• The idea is
acceptable because
it has been true for
a long time.

Example:
“Gay marriage is
wrong because
marriage has always
been between a man
and a woman.”
Red herring

• An emotionally charged
issue brought up to
divert attention from
something the
manipulator wants to
avoid.
Example:
"You asked me why the
unemployment rate has risen again,
but I'll tell you what's affecting this
country's morale in even worse
ways than that."
Cause-and-effect
“post hoc”
• Assuming a “cause-
and-effect”
relationship between
unrelated event.

Example:
“Our soccer team was
losing until I bought
new shoes.”
Hasty generalization

• Refer to conclusions
drawn from
insufficient
information, or where
a logical pathway is
reversed.
Example:
"No one I know voted
for Donald Trump; he
must have no
supporters.”
Slippery slope

• This implies that the

end result of today's
actions could be
something terrible.

Example:
"If I give you a raise,
then I have to give
everyone a raise, and
then the company will
go bankrupt.”
 Examples of Fallacies
Fallacy Characteristics Example

Argument against Attacking the person “Just look at that face! How
the person making the argument could anyone vote for that?”
“Ad hominem”
instead of the argument
itself.

Appeal to force Using the threat of force “Make sure you’re back by
“Argumentum ad or an undesirable event to 6pm. Do you recall what
baculum” happened the last time you
advance an argument.
were out late?”

Appeal to pity Using emotions such "I know I made a poor

“ Ad misericordiam” decision. But let's just look
as pity or sympathy. at how hard my job is."

Appeal to the The idea is presented as “Everyone on campus is

popular acceptable because a lot wearing Air Jordans. I need
“Argumentum ad to buy those sneakers.”
of people accept it.
populum”
 Examples of Fallacies
Fallacy Characteristics
Appeal to tradition The idea is acceptable
“Argumentum ad because it has been true
antiquitan”
for a long time
Begging the Assuming the thing or idea to
question be proven is true; also known
“ Petitio principi” as “circular argument”
Cause-and-effect . Assuming a “cause-and-
“post hoc” effect” relationship between
unrelated events
Hasty generalization This implies that the end
result of today's actions
could be something terrible.
Slippery slope This implies that the end
result of today's actions
could be something terrible.
Example
"Everyone in our family has
attended the University of
California system, so you
must do the same."
"I avoid those meetings; I
don't want to be
brainwashed."
“Cramming for a test really
helps; I crammed for my
psychology test and got an
A.”
“Sarah has four male friends
who do not like Hillary Clinton.
She decides that all men must
not like Hillary Clinton.”
"If I give you a raise, then I
have to give everyone a
raise, and then the company
will go bankrupt.”
 Group Activity

Each group will identify what

fallacy is shown on the
screen. Raise your answers
after each slide. Analyze
situations properly.
 Evaluation
1. That face cream can't be good. Kim Kardashian is
selling it.
2. I know we don't love each other. But, if we don't get
married it will crush my mother. You know she has a
weak heart. Do you really want to do that to her?
3. All my friends are doing a low carb diet. That must
be the only way to lose weight.
4. My brother eats cheeseburgers and pizza. He is
thin. Cheeseburgers and pizza aren’t the cause of
obesity.
5. If we allow our 14 year-old to have her first date
tonight, what's next? A wedding, kids?
1. That face cream can't be good. Kim Kardashian is
selling it. – Ad Hominem
2. I know we don't love each other. But, if we don't get
married it will crush my mother. You know she has a
weak heart. Do you really want to do that to her?
– Appeal to pity
3. All my friends are doing a low carb diet. That must
be the only way to lose weight. – Appeal to popular
4. My brother eats cheeseburgers and pizza. He is
thin. Cheeseburgers and pizza aren’t the cause of
obesity. – Hasty generalization
5. If we allow our 14 year-old to have her first date
tonight, what's next? A wedding, kids?
– Slippery slope