Telecom Technology Slide

Chapter One
What Is Telecommunications?
• Tele = Distance
• Communications
– The exchange of information between
individuals using a common set of
symbols, signs, behavior or language
Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

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Informatiion Technology
Communications
Objective: Ability to communicate over

long distances
 High volume of information
 No loss of accuracy (also protected from prying
eyes)
 Fast transmission rate
Early attempts:
 Voice Telegraph
 Messengers / Runners
 Signal Fires (mentioned by Homer in 1200 BE)
 Semaphores (Chappe brothers in France, 1793)
 Telegraph (first demonstrated in 1844 by Samuel
Morse)

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Communications

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Basic Principle
• Redundant communication with two
independent means of
communication.
• This ensures that you will still be able
to communicate even if one system
goes down.
– Satellite Phone (each system is
independent)
– HF Radio
– Landline, Cell phone
– VHF Radio (limited range)

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Types of Communications
• The most
common types
are:
– VHF
– HF
– Landline
– Cell Phones
– Satellite Phone

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Message types
• The three most common
message types are:
– Voice
– Fax
– Email
• But you can also
communicate via
– Text Messaging
– File transfer (including EDI)
– Image
– Video
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VHF
• Also called Motorola, Handy or
Walkie-Talkie
• Hand-held, vehicle, or base station
• Fair quality
• Free to use
• Range (without a repeater) max 10
to 20km
• Reception depends on topography
(line of sight)

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VHF
• A repeater receives signals from all the
handsets in it’s line of sight and
rebroadcasts them at high strength. Range
can be city-wide or even state-wide with a
repeater or repeater network
• Everyone can listen
• Typically restricted to voice

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HF
• Also called Codan or Short-Wave
• Vehicle mounted, base station, or
backpack
• Free to use
• Range world-wide
• Typically used for intercity
communication

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HF
• Transmits either by line of sight or by reflection from
the ionosphere – can have a “skip zone” gap between
line of sight and reflected waves at 50 to 150km
from station.
• Limited use in very mountainous terrain
• Everyone can listen
• Can handle Voice, Fax, limited File Transfer and email
• Can work in emergency if intact and has power

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Landline
• Common or garden
telephone line.
• Can be expensive
• Authorities can listen
easily
• Others can listen
with simple
equipment
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Landline
• Others can listen with simple equipment
• Can handle Voice, Fax, email, File
Transfer (including Web), nd Images.
High capacity lines can handle video. Can
also handle text messages in some
markets
• Very vulnerable in emergencies

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Cell Phones
• High Cost of use
• GSM is the most common system
outside the US
• Roaming is typically limited in
developing countries
• Normally reliant on landlines for
completing calls internationally
• Those with right equipment
(costs over $10,000 USD) or
access to exchanges can listen in.
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Cell Phones
• Can handle Voice and Text Messaging.
– Recently, Fax and email are often available in
developing countries.
• Vulnerable in emergencies as per landlines,
plus the risk of damage to cell antennae and
their power supplies

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Satellite Phone: Inmarsat
• Also called Mobiq, Nera
etc.
• Can be used except poles
• Can call any phone in the
world
• Normally available as
portable
• Very expensive
• Antenna needs to be
able to see the satellite

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Satellite Phone: Inmarsat
• Those with right equipment (Costs over
50,000USD) can listen in
• Can handle Voice, Fax, email, File Transfer, and
• Images. Special high capacity units can handle
video
• Can work in emergency if charged up

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Satellite phone: other systems
• Currently a whole range of other satellite
phone systems are on the market, including
Iridium, Globalstar, Thuraya, ACES, EAST etc.
• Cheaper than Inmarsat
• Can be used in satellite footprint
• Some systems restrict coverage
• Antenna needs to see satellite
• Those with right equipment can listen in
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Satellite phone: other systems
• Terminals are hand held
rather than portable
• Can handle voice. Status
of other services varies
• Can work in emergency
for outgoing calls –
receiving calls is more
difficult unless set up as
fixed station.

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Elements of a Communication System

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• Source - the originator of the message, whether it is a

person or machine.
• Transmitter - the equipment that modifies the message

(either data or voice) into the form required for
transmission.
• Communications channel - the means of carrying the

signal from the source to the destination.

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• Transmission media - may be physical, like a copper

wire or fiber optic cable, or atmospheric, like radio waves.
• Receiver - is the device that captures the message from

the communications channel and converts it into a form
that the person or machine at the destination can
understand.
• Destination - the person or machine to whom the

message is directed

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How to transfer information??
• Through Some Carrier
– Some carrier is required to carry information over
long distances…
• Why???
– Limitation: Information cannot go beyond certain
distance without the aid of a carrier

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Carrier
•Should be capable of carrying

information
•Can take it through long distance
•Should have good speed

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Which is the most suitable
carrier??
• Electromagnetic Wave
– Highest Known speed 3x108m/s
– Can carry any information through modulation
– Energetic - Can go through long distance
– Supports multiple media
• Eg: Free space/Copper/Fiber etc

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Electromagnetic Wave
• In electromagnetic wave electrical and
magnetic fields vary harmonically
• Harmonic oscillations at atomic level gives
oscillating electric field
• Electromagnetic wave generation

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Wave

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What Is Telecommunications?
• Telecommunications has been
defined as a technology
concerned with communicating
from a distance, and we can
categorize it in various ways.

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Telecommunications
• is the transmission of signals
over a distance for the
purpose of communication.
Or
• Communicating information
Via electronic means Over
some distance or
• Exchange of information in
any form (voice, data, text,
images, audio, video) over
networks

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Telecommunications
• Many different telecommunications networks

have been interconnected into a continuously
changing and extremely complicated global
system. We look at telecommunications from
different points of view in order to understand
what a complicated system we are dealing
with and how dependent we are on it.

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Telecommunications

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Significance of
Telecommunications
• Telecommunications networks make up the
most complicated equipment in the world
• Telecommunications services have an
essential impact on the development of a
community
• The operations of a modern community are
highly dependent on telecommunications
• Telecommunications plays an essential role on
many areas of everyday living
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Significance of
Telecommunications
• Telecommunications plays an essential role on many
areas of everyday living
– Banking, automatic teller machines, telebanking
– Aviation, booking of tickets
– Sales, wholesale and order handling
– Credit card payments at gasoline stations
– Booking of hotel rooms by travel agencies
– Material purchasing by industry
– Government operations, such as taxation
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Chapter Two
Standardization
• Communication networks are designed to
serve a wide variety of users who are using
equipment from many different vendors.
• To design and build net-works effectively,
standards are necessary to achieve
– interoperability
– Compatibility and
– required performance in a cost-effective manner

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Standardization cont…..
• Open standards are needed to enable the
interconnection of systems, equipment, and
networks from different manufacturers,
vendors, and operators
• The most important advantages and some
other aspects of open telecommunications
standards are explained on next slides

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Advantages of Standardization
• Standards enable competition
– Open standards are available to any telecommunications
system vendor. When a new system is standardized that is
attractive from a business point of view, multiple vendors
will enter this new market
• Standards lead to economies of scale in
manufacturing and engineering
– Standards increase the market for products adhering to
the standard, which leads to mass production and
economies of scale in manufacturing and engineering

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• Political interests often lead to different standards
in Europe, Japan, and the United States
– Standardization is not only a technical matter.
Sometimes opposing political interests make the
approval of global standards impossible, and
different standards are often adapted for Europe,
the United States, and Japan. To protect local
industry, Europe does not want to accept
American technology and America does not want
to accept European technology.
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• International standards are threats to the local
industries of large countries but opportunities to the
industries of small countries
– Major manufacturers in large countries may not support
international standardization because it would open their
local markets to international competition. Manufacturers
in small countries strongly support global standardization
because they are dependent on foreign markets. Their
home market is not large enough for expansion and they
are looking for new markets for their technology.

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Advantages Cont…
• Standards make the interconnection of
systems from different vendors possible
– The main technological aim of standardization is
to make systems from different networks
“understand” each other. Technical specifications
included in open standards make systems
compatible and support the provision of wide-
area or even global services that are based on
standardized technology

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Advantages Cont…
• Standards make users and network operators
vendor independent and improve availability
of the systems
– A standardized interface between a terminal and its
network enables subscribers to purchase terminal
equipment from multiple vendors. Standardized interfaces
among systems in the network enable network operators
to use multiple competing suppliers for systems. This
improves the availability and quality of systems and
reduces their cost

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Advantages Cont…
• Standards make international services available
– Standardization plays a key role in the provision of
international services. Official global standards define, for
example, telephone service, ISDN, and facsimile.
– The standards of some systems may not have official
worldwide acceptance, but if the system becomes popular
all around the world, a worldwide service may become
available.
• Recent examples of these services are GSM and the Internet with
WWW. Internet specifications have no official status, and GSM was
originally specified for Europe only. Their specifications have been
openly avail-able, which has supported their expansion.

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Standards Organizations
• Many organizations are involved in
standardization work. We look at them from
two points of view:
– the players in the telecommunications business
involved in standardization( Interested parties)
and
– the authorities that approve official standards.

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Interested Parties
• Why Interested Parties involved in
standardization work?
– Network operators support standardization for
these reasons
• To improve the compatibility of telecommunications
systems
• To be able to provide wide-area or even international
services
• To be able to purchase equipment from multiple
vendors

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Interested Parties
– Equipment manufacturers participate in
standardization for these reason
• To get information about future standards for
their development activities as early as
possible;
• To support standards that are based on their
own technologies;
• To prevent standardization if it opens their own
markets

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Interested Parties
– Service users participate in standardization
for these reasons
• To support the development of standardized
international services
• To have access to alternative system vendors
(multivendor networks)
• To improve the compatibility of their future
network systems

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Interested parties.

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National Standardization Authorities
• National
standardization
authorities approve
official national
standards. Many
international
standards include
alternatives and
options from which a
national authority
selects those suitable
for their own national
standards.

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European Organizations
The most important European standards

organizations are shown in the figure
are responsible for developing European
wide standards to open national borders
in order and improve pan-European
telecommunications services.

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American Organizations
• The U.S. national
standards authority
American National
Standards Institute has
accredited several
organizations to work
for standards for
telecommunications.
Some of these
organizations are
shown in Figure

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Global Organizations
• The International
Telecommunication Union
(ITU) is a specialized agency of
the United Nations
responsible for
telecommunications. It has
nearly 200 member countries,
and standardization work is
divided between two major
standardization bodies: ITU-T
and ITU-R (see figure)

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ITU-T and ITU-R
• ITU-T and ITU-R publish recommendations that are in
fact strong standards for telecommunications
networks. ITU-T works for the standards of public
telecommunications networks (e.g., ISDN), and ITU-R
works with radio aspects such as the usage of radio
frequencies worldwide and specifications for radio
systems. Many parties participate in their work, but
only national authorities may vote. ITU-T, formerly
CCITT, has created most of the current worldwide
standards for public networks.
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ISO/IEC
• The International Standards Organization/International
Electro-technical Commission (ISO/IEC) is a joint
organization responsible for the standardization of
Information technology.
• ISO has done important work in the area of data
communications and protocols, and IEC in the area of
electro-mechanical (for example, connectors),
environmental, and safety aspects

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Other Organizations
• Many organizations other than those just
mentioned are working with standards. Some
of these are active in ITU-T and ISO, and many
international standards are based on (or may
even be copies of) the initial work of these
groups. Introduced in this lecture are some of
these as examples of standards organizations
without official status (see Figure on next
slide)
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Examples of other standards
organizations

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IETF
• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is
responsible for the evolution of the Internet
architecture. It takes care of the
standardization of the TCP/IP protocol suite
used in the Internet

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UMTS
• The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) Forum is an open organization of cellular
system manufacturers. Its goal is to define a third
generation cellular system that will receive
worldwide acceptance and ensure compatibility
among equipment from different vendors.
– Unofficial forums are more flexible and can produce
necessary standards on a shorter timescale than can
official organizations. Their specifications are often used as
a basis for later official standards.

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TMF
• The Tele-management Forum (TMF) is an
organization of system manufacturers that works to
speed the development of network management
standards.
• With the help of these standards,
telecommunications network operators will be able
to control and supervise their multivendor networks
efficiently from the same management center.
Proposals are then given to ITU-T and ISO for official
international acceptance.
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Standardization Problem
• One important problem in standardization is the question of
intellectual property rights (IPRs). One company involved in
development of a standard may have a patent or copyright for
a method or function that is essential for implementation of
the standardized system.
– In such a case, other manufacturers may not be able to
implement the standard in an economically feasible
manner without interfering with a patent or copyright.
There are no fixed rules regarding how to solve this
problem, but very often the patent or copyright owner
agrees to license the patent or copyright for a standardized
system under fair terms
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Basic Telecommunications Network
• The basic purpose of a telecommunications network

is to transmit user information in any form to
another user of the network
• These users of public networks, for example, a
telephone network, are called subscribers
• User information may take many forms, such as voice
or data, and subscribers may use different access
network technologies to access the network
– for example, fixed or cellular telephones.

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Trends in Telecommunication

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Industry Trends
• Telecommunications networks and services are
available from numerous large and small
telecommunications companies
• Explosive growth of the Internet and the World Wide
Web has created a host of new telecommunications
products, services and providers
• Business firms have dramatically increased their use
of the Internet and the Web for electronic commerce
and collaboration.

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Technology Trends
• Open systems with unrestricted connectivity, using Internet networking
technologies as their technology platform, are becoming the primary
telecommunications technology drivers.
• Increased industry and technical moves towards building client/server
networks based on open system architecture.
• Open systems are information systems that use common standards for
hardware, software, applications, and networking. Any open systems
provide greater connectivity, that is, the ability of network computers and
other devices to easily access and communicate with each other and share
information.

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Technology Trends
• Open systems architecture also provides a
high degree of network interoperability. That
is, open systems enable the many different
applications of end users to be accomplished
using the different varieties of computer
systems, software packages, and databases
provided by a variety of interconnected
networks.

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Technology Trends
• Change from analog to digital network technologies. Local
and global telecommunications networks are rapidly
converting to digital transmission technologies that transmit
information in the form of discrete pulses, rather than waves.
Digital transmission offers:
– Higher transmission speeds (transmits with pulses)
– Movement of greater amounts of information
– Greater economy
– Much lower error rates than analog systems
– Telecommunications networks to carry multiple types of communications
(data, voice, and video) on the same circuits. (Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) technology)

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Technology Trends
• Change in communications media. Many
telecommunications networks are changing
from copper wire-based media and land-
based microwave relay systems to fibber optic
lines and communications satellite
transmissions. Fibber optic transmission,
which uses pulses of a laser-generated light,
offer significant advantages in terms of:

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Technology Trends
• Fibber optic transmission, which uses pulses
of a laser-generated light, offer significant
advantages in terms of:
– Reduced size and installation effort
– Greater communication capacity
– Faster transmission speeds
– Freedom from electrical interference

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Business Application Trends
• The trend toward more vendors, services, Internet
technologies, and open systems, and the rapid growth of the
Internet, the World Wide Web, and corporate Intranets and
extranets, dramatically increases the number of feasible
telecommunications applications.
• Telecommunications networks are playing a vital and
pervasive role in electronic commerce, enterprise
collaboration, and internal business applications that support
the operations, management, and strategic objectives of both
large and small companies.

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Business Application Trends
• Telecommunications functions have become an integral part
of local and global computer networks that are used to
dramatically:
– Cut costs
– Shorten business lead times and response times
– Support electronic commerce
– Improve the collaboration of workgroups
– Develop online operational processes
– Share resources
– Lock in customers and suppliers
– Develop new products and services.

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The Business Value of
Telecommunications

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The Business Value of
Telecommunications
• Information technology, especially in
telecommunications-based business applications,
helps company overcome barriers to business success.
• Four strategic capabilities of telecommunications and

other information technologies include:
– Overcome geographic barriers
– Overcome time barriers
– Overcome cost barriers
– Overcome structural barriers
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Telecommunications and Data
Communications
• Data communications
– A specialized subset of telecommunications that
refers to the electronic collection, processing, and
distribution of data -- typically between computer
system hardware devices

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Telecommunications network
• Any arrangement where a sender transmits a
message to a receiver over a channel
consisting of some type of medium

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Benefits of Networking
 A Computer Network is two or more computers connected together with
data communications equipment over a communications channel/media.
 Benefits of Networks?
 Reduce costs by sharing hardware, software,
and data (information).
 Communication!

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Elements of a Network

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Components of Network

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Components of the Network
• Devices
– Intermediate devices
– End devices
• Media (Cable or wireless)
• Services and processes (Software)

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Devices
• End devices
– Example:
• Computers
• Printers
• Fax machines , etc
• Intermediate devices
– Example:
• Switch
• Hub
• Routers
• Firewall
• Wireless routers, etc
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Media
• Commonly known medias
– Wire media
• Copper wires
– UTP cables
– STP cables
– Coaxial cables
• Fiber optics
– Wireless media
• Earth's atmosphere

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Network Connections
• For a network to function, the devices must be
interconnected
• Network connections can be wired or wireless.
– In wired connections, the medium is
• either copper, which carries electrical signals, or optical fiber,
which carries light signals
– In wireless connections, the medium is the Earth's
atmosphere, or space, and the signals are microwaves

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Network Connections
• Copper medium includes cables
– such as twisted pair telephone wire
• coaxial cable, or most commonly, what is known as
– Category 5 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable.
• Optical fibers
– thin strands of glass or plastic that carry light signals, are another form of networking
media
• Wireless media may include
– the home wireless connection between a wireless router and a computer with a wireless
network card
– the terrestrial wireless connection between two ground stations, or
– the communication between devices on earth and satellites. In a typical journey across
the Internet, a message may travel across a variety of media.

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Network Connections

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Chapter Three
Services on a network
• Human beings often seek to send and receive a variety of messages using
computer applications; these applications require services to be provided
by the network.
– Some of these services include the
• World Wide Web,
• e-mail,
• instant messaging, and
• IP Telephony(VOIP)
• Devices interconnected by medium to provide services must be

governed by rules, or protocols. In the chart, some common services and a
protocol most directly associated with that service are listed.

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Services on a network
• Protocols are the

rules that the
networked
devices use to
communicate
with each other

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Devices

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Some examples of end devices
• Computers (work stations, laptops, file
servers, web servers)
• Network printers
• VoIP phones
• Security cameras
• Mobile handheld devices (such as wireless
barcode scanners, PDAs)

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End Devices and Their Roles
• In the context of a network, end devices are referred to as

hosts.
• A host device is either the sender or receiver
• To distinguish one host from another, each host on a
network is identified by an address.
• A host (sender) uses the address of the destination host to
specify where the message should be sent.
• Software determines the role of a host. A host can be a
client, server or both

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End Devices and Their Roles

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Intermediary Devices and Their
Roles
• Examples:
- Network Access Devices (Hubs, switches, and
wireless access points)
- Internetworking Devices (routers)
- Communication Servers and Modems
- Security Devices (firewalls)

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Intermediary Devices and Their
Roles
• Processes running on the intermediary network
devices perform these functions:
– Regenerate and retransmit data signals
– Maintain information about what pathways exist through the
network and internetwork
– Notify other devices of errors and communication failures
– Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
– Classify and direct messages according to QoS priorities
– Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings

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Intermediary Devices and Their Roles

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Telecommunications Processors
• Modems (modulation/demodulation)
– Changes signals from analog to digital and
back to analog
• Multiplexers
– Allows a single communication channel to
carry simultaneous data transmissions
from many terminals

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Telecommunications Processors
(continued)
• Internetwork Processors
– Switches
• Makes connections between telecomm circuits
so a message can reach its intended
destination
– Router
• Interconnects networks based on different
rules or protocols

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Telecommunications
Processors (continued)
– Hub
• Port switching communications processor
– Gateway
• A processor that interconnects networks that use
different communications architecture

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Communication Equipment/Devices
• Modem – modulator -demodulator
– Converts digital signal to analog and vice versa
• Telephone Dialup Modem (56 Kbps)
• DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Modem
• Cable Modem (cable companies)
• Cellular Modem (uses cellular system)
• Network Integrated w/ Motherboard
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
– Installed in expansion slot
– Wired or wireless cards

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Modem
• A modem is a communication device that
converts binary signal into analog acoustic
signals for transmission over telephone lines
and converts these acoustic signals back into
binary from at the receiving end.

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Modem
• Conversion to analog signal known as
modulation.
• Conversion back to binary signal is known as
demodulation.

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Modem
• Modem = modulator + demodulator

• A modem at sender side converts
digital signals to analog signals
before sending them across a
phone line.
• Another end modem converts
analog signals back to digital
signals before passing them to a
receiver.

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MODEM
Functions of the modem

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Modem
Outgoing: Converts binary
data from computer (digital)
into telephone compatible
signals (analog).
Incoming: Converts telephone
signal (analog) into binary data
for the computer (digital).
Can be an external or internal
device (usually a “card”).

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Modems
• Analog Modems
– 14.4 Kbps (Kilobits per second)
– 28.8 Kbps
– 33.6 Kbps
• Analog/Digital Modems
– 56 Kbps
• X2 Technology – U.S. Robotics
• Flex technology – Lucent, Rockwell
– These two technologies compete and are not compatible (similar to
beta vs. vhs)
• V.90 – this is superior to either X2 or Flex

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Modems/Communication Lines
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) – A true
digital modem
– Requires a ISDN phone line (which is digital)
– Transmits data on two 64 Kbps channels which can be
combined into a 128 Kbps stream
– More expensive than traditional phone lines and modems
(Internet Service Provides may charge more)
– More complicated to setup and use
– It is rapidly loosing out to newer technology; it is nearly a
historical footnote now

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• Cable Modems
– Rented from your cable television company
– Cable TV company serves as the Internet Service
Provider
– Can achieve speeds 10X faster than ISDN lines
(1,500 Kbps)
– Speed is slowed as more people get on the same
cable
– Limited availability
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Cable Modems

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• DSL or ADSL – Digital Subscriber Line
– A system developed by the phone companies to
compete with cable companies
– Digital signals are sent over existing phone lines
– The further you are away from the switching
station, the slower the connection
– 25x faster than a 56 Kbps modem

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• T1 lines
– A fiber optic cable that carries voice and computer data
– It is 60X faster than a standard modem (1.544 Megabits per
second)
– Often used for networks
– Very reliable
– Costs $1,000 to $1,500 a month
• T3 lines
– 3X faster than a T1

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Modem connection
Data PSTN
Communications Data
Equipment Terminal
(DCE) Equipment
(DTE)

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Modem connection
• Sending message from fax machine to
computer and vice versa

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Wired Analog Service

08/02/2021 108
08/02/2021 109
USER at home using a dialup telephone
line to run a connection oriented
application(Internet)

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User at home using a local area
network to access the Internet

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Structure of Access Network
• ADSL : Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
• DBS : Direct Broadcast Satellite
• FTTC : Fiber To The Curb
Cable-based AN • HFC : Hybrid Fiber Coaxial
Digital DBS • LMDS : Local Multipoint Distribution System
• MMDS : Multi-channel Multipoint Distribution
System
Fiber or • MSO : Multiple Service Operator
Wireless MMDS/LMDS
LMDS only
Hub
Station DBS STB/
MMDS/LMDS
STB
64Kbps
ISDN Adaptor
ISDN
MSO Line
/CO Analog
56Kbps Modem
6Mbp ADSL Modem
s 640Kbps Home
Coax 30Mbps
Cable Modem Terminal
Fiber HFC 3Mbps ONU Coax or
Copper
Fiber VDSL Modem
FTTC/FTTO 52Mbps
3Mbps

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Motivation on Modulation and
Demodulation
If either analog or digital signals were used
exclusively, communications would be
simplified. However, this is impossible
especially attempting to send signals across a
long distance. Digital signals cannot be
transmitted far without being converted to
analog signals. Because telephone system is an
analog device, computer signals must be
converted to analog signals.

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Considerations in choosing a
modem
• Internal Vs external
• Speed
• Compression
• Error control
• Fax capability

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Services on a Network

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Network Media
• Communication across a network is carried on
a medium.
• The medium provides the channel over which
the message travels from source to
destination.

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Network Media
• Modern networks primarily use three types of media to
interconnect devices and to provide the pathway over which
data can be transmitted.
• These media are:
• Metallic wires within cables
• Glass or plastic fibers (fiber optic cable)
• Wireless transmission

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Network Media
• The signal encoding that must occur for the message to
be transmitted is different for each media type
– On metallic wires, the data is encoded into electrical impulses that
match specific patterns
– Fiber optic transmissions rely on pulses of light, within either infrared
or visible light ranges
– In wireless transmission, patterns of electromagnetic waves depict the
various bit values.

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Network Media
• Different types of network media have
different features and benefits.
• Not all network media has the same
characteristics and is appropriate for the same
purpose.

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Communication Channel / Media

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Copper Media

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 Twisted Pair (TP) Cable

Physical Media
Shielded (STP)
 Unshielded (UTP)
 Ethernet uses RJ45
 Telephone uses RJ11
 RJ – Registered Jack
 Coaxial Cable (coax)
 Copper + 3 layers of insulation
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Glass/plastic –
uses light to transmit
 Speed of light
 Tubes are insulated
 Wireless
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• Wireless
– Generally slower
Wireless Media
– Susceptible to interference
– Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity –
standard 802.11
MIMO (Multiple-in, Multiple-Out)
– Infrared
– Bluetooth
– Cellular Radio
• Microwave (line of site)
• Satellite – placed about
22,300 miles above
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Twisted-Pair Wiring
– Two wires twisted together.
• Makes them less susceptible to acting like an antenna
and picking up radio frequency information or
appliance noise.
• The wires are twisted to reduce outside electrical
interference

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UTP CABLE

08/02/2021 125
UTP Cable Types
• UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is a
common copper-based medium for interconnecting
network devices, such as computers, with
intermediate devices, such as routers and network
switches.
• The following are main cable types that are obtained
by using specific wiring conventions:
– Ethernet Straight-through
– Ethernet Crossover
– Rollover
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UTP Cable Types

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UTP Cable Types

08/02/2021 128
Twisted-Pair Cable
• Twisted-pair cable consists of multiple, individually insulated wires that
are twisted together in pairs.
• Sometimes a metallic shield is placed around the twisted pairs. Hence, the
name shielded twisted-pair (STP).
• More commonly, you see cable with no outer shielding, called unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
• UTP is commonly used in 10BaseT, star-wired networks.

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Twisted-Pair Cable
• When electromagnetic signals are conducted on copper wires that are in
close proximity (such as inside a cable), some electromagnetic interference
occurs. This interference is called crosstalk.
• Twisting two wires together as a pair minimizes such interference and also
provides some protection against interference from outside sources.
• This cable type is the most common today.

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It is popular for several reasons:
• It's cheaper than other types of cabling.

• It's easy to work with.
• It permits transmission rates considered impossible ten years ago.

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Unshielded Twisted-Pair(UTP)
• Is becoming the most popular LAN cabling.

• The maximum cable length segment is 100 meter.
• UTP is commonly used in 10BaseT, star-wired networks.
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Informatiion Technology 132
Key characteristics of UTP
• Transmission rate of 10 – 100 Mbps

• Maximum cable segment of 100 meters
• Most susceptible to electrical interference or
‘crosstalk’ (although shielding may lessen the impact)
• Less expensive than coaxial or fiber optic
• Very flexible and easy to work with
• Uses an RJ-45 connector
08/02/2021
Common UTP categories include
Categories 3, 5 and 6:
• Category 3 (Cat 3) has four twisted-pair (eight

wires), with three twists per foot. is acceptable for
10Mbps.
wires) and is rated for 100Mbps.
wires) and is rated for 1000Mbps.
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Two other types of copper cable
are used
• Coaxial
• Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)

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Coaxial Cable
cable that can carry a wide range of frequencies
with low signal loss
• Consists of a metallic shield with a single wire placed along the center
of a shield and isolated from the shield by an insulator
• Two different types
– Thinnet coaxial cable - similar to the cable used by cable television companies
– Thicknet coaxial cable - similar to thinnet except that it is larger in diameter
• Terminators are placed on each end of the wire to absorb the
unwanted echo.

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Coaxial cable
– Also two wires:
• One of the wires is woven of fine strands of copper
forming a tube.
• The wire mesh surrounds a solid copper wire that runs
down the center.
• Space between has a non-conducting material.
• Makes them more impervious to outside noise.

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Coaxial Cable

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Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
• STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires

within the cable as well as the individual wire
pairs. STP provides better noise protection
than UTP cabling, however at a significantly
higher price.

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Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

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Fiber Optic Cable
• Fiber optic (or "optical fiber") - the
technology associated with the transmission
of information as light impulses along a glass
or plastic wire or fiber
• Optical fiber cable can transmit data over long
distances with little loss in data integrity
• Optical fiber is not subject to interference

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Fiber Optic Cable
• Because fibre-optic cable transmits digital signals
using light pulses, it is immune to electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference(RFI).
• Light is carried on either a glass or a plastic core.
• Glass can carry the signal a greater distance, but
plastic costs less.
• Fiber-optic cable is suited for data running large
distances and without electronics regenerating the
signal or for an installation requiring high security.
08/02/2021
Fiber-optic cable
Light is electromagnetic.
Can transmit more information
down a single strand.
It can send a wider set of frequencies.
Each cable can send several
thousand phone conversations or
computer communications.
• Fiber-optic is now being used in such
applications as gigabit Internet
backbones.
• However, it is difficult to install and is
expensive

08/02/2021 143
Fiber-optic cable
• Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal
Communications lines:
– Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables.
This means that they can carry more data
– Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to
interference
– Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires
– Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data)
rather than analogically.

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Key characteristics of fiber-optic cable
• Transmission rate of 100Mbps

• Cable length of 2 kilometers or more
• Not affected by electrical interference
• Supports voice, video, and data
• Provides the most secure media
• Most expensive cable
• Not very flexible; difficult to work with
• Commonly used in backbones between building
08/02/2021
Unguided (Wireless transmission)
• The IEEE and telecommunications industry
standards for wireless data communications
cover both the Data Link and Physical layers

08/02/2021 146
• Four common data communications standards that apply to wireless
media are:
– Standard IEEE 802.11 - Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is a Wireless LAN (WLAN)
technology that uses a contention or non-deterministic system with a Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) media access process.
– Standard IEEE 802.15 - Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) standard, commonly
known as "Bluetooth", uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances
from 1 to 100 meters.
– Standard IEEE 802.16 - Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access (WiMAX), uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband
access.
– Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) - Includes Physical layer specifications
that enable the implementation of the Layer 2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
protocol to provide data transfer over mobile cellular telephony networks.

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Wireless Media standards and types

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In unguided media transmission and reception are
achieved by means of an antenna
Wireless transmission can of the following types:
– Terrestrial Microwave
– Communications Satellites
– Cellular and PCS Systems:
– Wireless LANs
– The Wireless Web
08/02/2021
• Terrestrial Microwave
– Involves earthbound microwave systems, which
transmit high-speed radio signals in a line-of-sight
path between relay stations spaced approximately
30 miles apart.
– Uses the atmosphere as the medium through
which to transmit signals.
– Used extensively for high-volume as well as long-
distance communication of both data and voice in
the form of electromagnetic waves
08/02/2021 150
• Disadvantages Terrestrial Microwave:
– Microwave signals cannot bend around the
curvature of the earth; instead they must be
relayed from point to point by microwave towers,
or relay stations, placed approximately 30 miles
apart. (The surface of the earth typically curves
about 8 inches every mile).
– Saturation of the airwaves with microwave
transmissions has reached its maximum.

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• Communications Satellites
• Use the atmosphere as the medium through which to transmit
signals. A satellite is some solar-powered electronic device that
receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals; the satellite acts as a
relay station between satellite transmission stations on the ground
(earth stations). Three satellites placed in orbit can cover the
entire surface of the earth, with some overlap.
– Used extensively for high-volume as well as long-distance
communication of both data and voice.
– Cost-effective method for moving large quantities of data
over long distances.

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• Disadvantages:
– Satellites are very expensive to develop and place in orbit.
– Signals weaken over long distances; weather conditions and solar
activity can cause noise interference.
– A satellite is useful for only 7 - 10 years.
– Anyone can listen in on satellite signals, so sensitive data must be sent
in a secret, or encrypted, form.
– Depending on the satellite’s transmission frequency, microwave
stations on earth can “jam,” or prevent, transmission by operating at
the same frequency.
– Signal transmission may be slow if the signals must travel over very
long distances.

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• Cellular and PCS Systems:
– Use several radio communications technologies that divide a
geographic area into small areas or cells typically from one to several
square miles. Each cell has its own low-power transmitter or radio
relay antenna device to relay calls from one cell to another. This
technology is used to support mobile phone service, and mobile voice
and data communications.
– Important communications medium for mobile voice and data
communications.
– Disadvantages:
• Not secured lines

08/02/2021 154
• Wireless LANs:
– Other buildings frequently do not have conduits for coaxial
cables or additional twisted-pair wire, and the conduits in
newer buildings may not have enough room to pull
additional wring through. One solution to this problem is
installing a wireless LAN, using one of several wireless
technologies. These include:
• High-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular
• Low-frequency radio technology called spread spectrum.
• Infrared technology which uses beams of infrared light.

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Wireless LANs
• A common wireless data implementation is enabling
devices to wirelessly connect via a LAN. In general, a
wireless LAN requires the following network devices:
– Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrates the wireless
signals from users and connects, usually through a copper
cable, to the existing copper-based network infrastructure
such as Ethernet.
– Wireless NIC adapters - Provides wireless communication
capability to each network host.

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08/02/2021 157
08/02/2021 158
• Advantages of WLAN:
– Eliminate the difficulty and costly task of wiring
existing buildings.
– IEEE 802.11b (WI-FI) is faster and less expensive
than Standard Ethernet and other common wire-
based LAN technologies.

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• The Wireless Web:
– Wireless access to the Internet, intranets, and extranets is
growing as more Web-enabled information appliances
proliferate.
– Smart telephones, pagers, PDSs, and other portable
communications devices have become very thin clients in
wireless networks.
– Agreement on a standard wireless application protocol
(WAP) has encouraged the development of many wireless
Web applications and services.

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• The Wireless Web:
– Telecommunications industry continues to work on third
generation (3G) wireless technologies whose goal is to
raise wireless transmission speeds to enable streaming
video and multimedia applications on mobile devices.
– WAP standard specifies how Web pages in HTML or XML
are translated into a wireless markup language (WML) by
filter software and pre-processed by proxy software to
prepare the Web pages for wireless transmission from a
Web server to a Web-enabled wireless device.

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• Disadvantages wireless Web:

– Distance limitations

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Wireless Networks: Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
• Use radio waves to connect stations
• 802.11b: Current standard; 54 Mbps in 2.4 GHz
range
• Infrastructure mode: Wireless devices
communicate with wired LAN via access points
• Ad-hoc mode(infrastructure less) Peer-to-peer
mode; wireless devices communicate with each
other directly

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Wireless Networks: Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
• Hot spot: Geographic location in which an access

point provides public Wi-Fi network service
• Bluetooth: Standard for wireless personal area
networks that can transmit up to 722 Kbps within
10-meter area

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Chapter Four
Wireless Technologies
• Terrestrial Microwave
– Line-of-sight path between relay stations spaced
approximately 30 miles apart.
– Geosynchronous orbits
– Serve as relay stations for communications signals
transmitted from earth stations

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Wireless Technologies (continued)
• Cellular & PCS Systems

– Each cell is typically from one to several
square miles in area.
– Each cell has its own low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna.
– Computers & other communications
processors coordinate & control the
transmissions to/from mobile users as they
move from one cell to another

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Wireless Telecommunications Technology - Cell Phone
Technologies
• Cellular network
– A radio network
– Geographic area is
divided into cells
with a transceiver
antenna and
station at the
center of each cell

08/02/2021
Mobile Phone Infrastructure

08/02/2021 168
Pagers
• Small, lightweight devices that receive signals
from transmitters
• Types of paging systems
– National and regional systems
• Set up transmission towers to cover large geographic
areas
– On-site paging systems
• Use small desktop transmitters to send pages over a
small wireless network

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Global Positioning Systems
• Uses satellites to pinpoint the location of objects

on earth
• Using a GPS receiver and a network of 24 satellites
– GPS can tell exact location of receiver on the earth’s
surface
• GPS
– Originally developed for national security and later
extended for public use

08/02/2021 170
08/02/2021 171
Wireless Fidelity and WiMAX
• Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi)

– Makes use of access points to wirelessly connect
users to networks within a range of 250–1000
– Standards
• Known as the 802.11 family of standards
• Developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE)
• Developed to support wireless computer networking
within a limited range at broadband speeds

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Wireless Fidelity and WiMAX (continued)
• WiMAX
– Known as IEEE 802.16
– Faster and longer range than Wi-Fi
– WiMAX antenna has 31-mile range
• Perfect for city-wide Internet access
– Seattle’s Space Needle has a WiMAX antenna
– Intel and Nokia are strongly supporting WiMAX

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Bluetooth
• Enables digital devices to communicate directly
with each other wirelessly over short distances
• Communicates at speeds of up to 1 Mbps
within a range of up to 33 feet (10 meters)
• Can connect devices to a computer network
using access points like Wi-Fi
• Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
– Compete in some areas, but have unique qualities

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08/02/2021 176
Infrared
– Commonly used in TV and VCR remote controls.
– Use infrared frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation that behave much like visible light.
– Must be in the line of sight.
– Often used to connect
keyboards, mice,
and printers.

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Chapter Five
Microwave and Satellite
Transmission
Microwave Transmission
Microwave Repeater
Repeated
Signal
Signal
Source Destination
Microwave signals do not bend around the curve of the earth

or pass through mountains.
Microwave repeaters solve these problems.
08/02/2021 179
Microwave transmission
Microwave Also called terrestrial microwave
Line-of-sight medium
Often used to
communicate with
distant locations.
Must be line of sight.
Satellite communications
use microwaves.

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08/02/2021 181
Satellite Communications
Downlink Uplink
GEO= 35,000 km, 250 ms delay

LEO = 4,000 km, 20 ms delay
MEO = 10,000 km, 50 ms delay

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08/02/2021 183
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Communication Satellite
System
Geosynchronous Communication Satellite
GEOs Operate
about 36,000 km GEOs appear
(22,300 miles) to be stationary
above the earth In the sky.
Broadcast this permits easy
Point-to-Point Downlink Dish aiming.
Uplink
Footprint
Earth Station A Earth Station B
08/02/2021 184
LEOs and MEOs
• Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEOs)
– A few hundred miles above the earth
– Satellites pass out of view rapidly, requiring constant
shifting
• Medium Earth Orbit Satellites (MEOs)

– A few thousand miles above the earth
– Farther than LEOs, so signals must be stronger
– Satellites stay in view longer because they have longer
orbital periods
– Less shifting is required
08/02/2021 185
LEOs and MEOs
Currently Responsible
LEO or MEO
Satellite B
Satellite A
Satellite C
Small
Omnidirectional
Transceiver
Fortunately, distances are relatively small,

so Omni-directional receivers can be used
08/02/2021 186
LEOs and MEOs
Currently Responsible
LEO or MEO
Satellite B
Satellite A
Satellite C
Small
Omnidirectional
Transceiver
Fortunately, distances are relatively small,

so Omni-directional receivers can be used
08/02/2021 187
VSAT Satellite System
• Traditional Satellite Systems
– Used very large dishes (3 meters or more)
– Very expensive
• VSAT Satellite System

– Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) earth stations
– Use small (1 meter or less) diameter dishes
– Small dishes allow earth stations small and
inexpensive enough to be used in homes
08/02/2021 188
VSAT Satellite System
• VSAT Satellite System
– Used primarily in one-way transmission, such as
television distribution
– Occasionally used for two-way communication
• News reporting in the field
• Military communication
• High-cost Internet access for rural subscribers

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Perspective on Satellites
• Compared to landline service
– 1-way broadcast TV and radio distribution are affordable
– 2-way communication is extremely expensive
• 2-way transceivers on the ground are very expensive
• Controlling multiple access from stations that want to transmit
at the same time is expensive and inefficient
• Usually limited to specialized and expensive services
– Serving rural areas with Internet access
– Serving moving vehicles with 2-way communication
– Journalists and soldiers

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Typical satellite systems
Inter Satellite
Mobile Link (ISL)
Gateway MUL
User Link
(MUL) Link (GWL) GWL
small cells
(spotbeams)
base
footprint station
or
gateway
ISDN PSTN GSM
PSTN: Public Switched User data

Telephone Network

08/02/2021 191
Transmission Characteristics
 Bandwidth – is the measurement of how much information can be
transmitted over a medium over a prescribed period of time.
 Signal Type
 Analog (continuous signal for older media).
 Digital (individual electrical pulses - binary).
 Broadband transmission– multiple signals simultaneously
in both directions - shared line - (Internet connections).
 Baseband transmission – one signal at a time.
 Simplex – data is transmitted one direction only (TV).
 Half-duplex – data is transmitted in both directions,
but not at the same time (CB Radio, ATM, FAX).
 Full-duplex – data is transmitted in both directions at the same
time for same device (telephone, modem dial-up service).

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Criteria for choosing a network media
• The distance the media can successfully carry a

signal.
• The environment in which the media is to be
installed.
• The amount of data and the speed at which it
must be transmitted.
• The cost of the media and installation

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Communications and
Telecommunications
• In human speech, the sender transmits a signal through the
transmission medium of the air
• In telecommunications, the sender transmits a signal through
the transmission medium

08/02/2021 194
Chapter Six
Telecommunications Network
• Generally, a communications network is any
arrangement where a sender transmits a
message to a receiver over a channel
consisting of some type of medium. Figure on
next illustrates a simple conceptual model of a
telecommunications network, which shows
that it consists of five basic categories of
components

08/02/2021 195
Telecommunications Network Model

08/02/2021 196
Telecommunications network
components
• Terminals: any input/output device that uses
networks to transmit or receive data
• Telecommunications Processors: devices that support
data transmission and reception
• Telecommunications Channels: media over which
data are transmitted and received
• Computers: all sizes and types
• Telecommunications Control Software: programs
that control telecommunications activities

08/02/2021 197
Components
• Terminals
– Terminals are any input/output devices that use
telecommunications networks to transmit or
receive data. They include:
• Video Terminals
• Microcomputers
• Telephones
• Office Equipment
• Transaction Terminals

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Components
• Telecommunications Processors
– Support data transmission and reception
between terminals and computers. They
include:
• Modems
• Switches
• Routers

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Components
• Telecommunications Channels
– Telecommunications channels are the part of a telecommunications
network that connects the message source with the message receiver.
They include the physical equipment used to connect one location to
another for the purpose of transmitting and receiving information.
Data are transmitted and received over channels, which use a variety
of telecommunications media. Media include:
• Copper Wires
• Coaxial Cables
• Fibber Optic Cables
• Microwave Systems

08/02/2021 200
Components
• Computers
– Telecommunications networks interconnect
computers of all sizes and types. They
include:
• Host Computers (mainframes)
• Front-End Processors (minicomputers)
• Network Servers (microcomputers)

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Telecommunications Software
• Telecommunications Control Software
– Consists of programs that control
telecommunications activities and manage the
functions of telecommunications networks. They
include:
• Telecommunications Monitors (mainframe host
computers)
• Network Operating Systems (microcomputer network
servers)
• Communications Packages (microcomputers)

08/02/2021 202
• Provides a variety of communications
support services including connecting &
disconnecting communications links &
establishing communications
parameters such as transmission speed,
mode, and direction.

08/02/2021 203
(continued)
• Network Management
– Traffic management
– Security
– Network monitoring
– Capacity planning

08/02/2021 204
General model of
telecommunications

08/02/2021 205

08/02/2021 206
Signal path
Converts
data Converts
data
Initiates Receives
instruction Instruction
08/02/2021 207
08/02/2021 208
Types of Telecommunications
Networks
• There are many different types of telecommunications
networks. However, from an end user point of view,
there are only a few basic types, such as:
– Local area networks
– Wide area networks
– Virtual private networks
– Client/server networks
– Network Computing
– Peer-to-peer networks
08/02/2021 209
Basic Networks
• Networks infrastructures can vary greatly in terms of:
– The size of the area covered
– The number of users connected
– The number and types of services available
• Basic type of networks
– Local area Networks(LAN)
– Wide Area Networks(WAN) and
– Internetworks

08/02/2021 210
What Is a LAN?
• Local area networks are telecommunications
networks that connect information-processing
devices within a limited physical area. These
networks cover areas such as:
• Offices
• Classrooms
• Buildings
• Manufacturing plant

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LAN

08/02/2021 212
LAN
• An individual network usually spans a single geographical
area, providing services and applications to people within
a common organizational structure
– such as a single business, campus or region
• A LAN is usually administered by a single organization.
The administrative control that governs the security and
access control policies are enforced on the network level.

08/02/2021 213
LAN

08/02/2021 214
Characteristics of LAN

High data-transfer rates.

Small geographic range.

Lack of a need for leased telecommunication
lines.

08/02/2021 215
Primary Function of a LAN
To provide access to hardware and software resources
that will allow users to perform one or more of the
following activities:
• File serving - A large storage disk drive acts as a
central storage repository.
• Print serving - Providing the authorization to
access a particular printer, accept and queue print
jobs, and providing a user access to the print queue
to perform administrative duties.

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Primary Function of a LAN
(continued)
Video transfers - High speed LANs are capable of supporting video image
and live video transfers.
Manufacturing support - LANs can support manufacturing and industrial
environments.
Academic support – In classrooms, labs, and wireless.
E-mail support.
Interconnection between multiple systems.

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Advantages of Local Area Networks
• Ability to share hardware and software resources.
• Individual workstation might survive network failure.
• Component and system evolution are possible.
• Support for heterogeneous forms of hardware and software.
• Access to other LANs and WANs
• Private ownership.
• Secure transfers at high speeds with low error rates.

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Disadvantages of Local Area
Networks
• Equipment and support can be costly.
• Level of maintenance continues to grow.
• Private ownership possible.
• Some types of hardware may not interoperate.
• Just because a LAN can support two different kinds of
packages does not mean their data can interchange easily.
• A LAN is only as strong as it weakest link, and there are
many links.

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Wide area Networks
• Wide area Networks are
telecommunications networks that cover
large geographic areas. These networks
cover areas such as:
– Large city or metropolitan area
– Whole country
– Many countries and continents

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WAN

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Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)- Individual

organizations usually lease connections through a
telecommunications service provider network.
These networks that connect LANs in
geographically separated locations are referred to
as Wide Area Networks.

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The Internetwork
• A global mesh of interconnected networks (internetworks)
meets these human communication needs
• Some of these interconnected networks are owned by large
public and private organizations, such as government agencies
or industrial enterprises, and are reserved for their exclusive
use
• The most well-known and widely used publicly-accessible
internetwork is the Internet

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The Internetwork

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Virtual Private Networks(VPN)
• A virtual private network is a secure network
that uses the Internet as its main backbone
network, but relies on the firewalls and other
security features of the Internet and Intranet
connections and those of participating
organizations.
• Many organizations use virtual private
networks (VPNs) to establish secure Intranets
and extranets.
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VPN

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Client/Server Networks
• Client/server networks have become the
predominate information architecture of
enterprise computing.
• Computing power has rapidly become
distributed and interconnected throughout
many organizations by networked computer
systems that take the form of client/server
networks.

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Characteristics of a
client/server network
• End user PC or NC workstations are the
clients.
• Clients are interconnected by local area
networks and share application processing
with network servers, which also manage the
networks.
• LANs may be interconnected to other LANs
and wide area networks of client workstations
and servers.
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Client/Server Networks

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Benefits of client/server
computing include
• Clients (end users) can perform some or most of the
processing of their business applications.
• LAN servers can share application processing, manage work
group collaboration, and control common hardware, software,
and databases.
• Data can be completely processed locally, where most input
and output must be handled.
• Provides access to the workstations and servers in other
networks.
• Computer processing is more tailored to the needs of the end
users.

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Benefits of client/server
computing include
• Increases information processing efficiency and effectiveness,
as users are more responsible for their own application
systems.
• Allows large central-site computers to handle the jobs they do
best - such as high-volume transaction processing,
communications network security and control, and
maintenance and control of large corporate databases.
• Clients at local sites can access the corporate super servers to
receive corporate wide management information or transmit
summary transaction data reflecting local site activities

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Peer-to-Peer Networks
• The emergence of peer-to-peer (P2P)
networking technologies and applications is
being hailed as a development that will
revolutionize e-business and e-commerce and
the Internet itself.

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• Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
– Two major models
• Central server architecture
• Pure peer-to-peer

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Network computing
• The growing reliance on the computer hardware,
software, and data resources of the Internet,
Intranets, extranets, and other networks has
emphasized that for many users “the network is the
computer”.
• This network computing, or network-centric,
concept views networks as the central computing
resource of any computing environment. It appears
to be the architecture that will take computing into
the next century.
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Network computing

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Features of network computing
• Network computers provide a browser-based user
interface for processing small application programs
called applets.
• Network computers are microcomputers without
floppy or hard disk drives that are designed as low-
cost networked computing devices.
• Servers provide the operating system, applets,
databases, and database management software
needed by the end users in the network.

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Chapter Seven
Internet, Intranet and
Extranets
What is Internet ?
• The world’s most extensive, public
communication network
• It is a Global network of computers, (servers or clients).to exchange
information.
• Indispensable personal and business tool

– It is a "network of networks" that includes millions of private and
public, academic, business, and government networks (local or Global),
linked by copper wires, wireless connections, and other technologies.
• Began in the early 1970s

• Department of Defense

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The Internet
• Distinguishing features of the Internet include:
– The Net does not have a central computer system
or telecommunications center. Instead each
message sent on the Internet has a unique
address code so any Internet server in the
network can forward it to its destination.
– The Net does not have a headquarters or
governing body.
– The Internet is growing rapidly.

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Internet Applications

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Business Use of The Internet
• Business use of the Internet is expanding from an electronic
information exchange to a broad platform for strategic
business applications. Business uses of the Internet include:
– Collaboration among business partners
– Providing customer and vendor support
– Buying and selling products and services
– Marketing, sales, and customer service applications
– Growth of cross-functional business applications
– Emergence of applications in engineering, manufacturing, human resources
and accounting
– Enterprise communications and collaboration
– Electronic commerce
– Strategic business alliances

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Examples of how a company can
use Internet for Business

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The Business Value of The
Internet
The companies derive the following business values
from their business applications on the Internet
– Substantial cost savings can arise because applications that use the
Internet and Internet-based technologies (like Intranets and
extranets) are typically less expensive to develop, operate, and
maintain than traditional systems.
– Attracting new customers with innovative marketing and products
– Retaining present customers with improved customer service and
support.
– Generating revenue through electronic commerce applications is a
growing source of business value.

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The Business Value of The Internet
• Most companies are building commercial sites on the
World Wide Web to achieve six major business
values:
– Generate new revenue from online sales.
– Reduce costs through online sales and customer support.
– Attract new customers via web marketing and advertising and online
sales.
– Increase the loyalty of existing customers via improved web
customer service and support.
– Develop new web-based markets and distribution channels for
existing products.
– Develop new information-based products accessible on the Web.

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Access to the Internet
• Three Ways to Access the Internet
– LAN servers
• Local servers can provide access to the Internet through normal
connections (e.g., Ethernet)
– Serial line internet protocol (SLIP) and
Point-to-point protocol (PPP)
• Communications protocol software that transmits packets over
telephone lines, allowing dial-up access to the Internet
– Connection via an on-line service
• Examples are America Online and Microsoft Network. These
services usually require sign-up procedures

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Connecting to the Internet
• Most home users subscribe to an Internet
Service Provider (ISP) to connect to the
Internet
• Analog modem
– Takes digital signals from the computer and turns
them into analog signals
– A modem at the ISP then converts the sound back
into a digital signal that can be transmitted over
the Internet

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Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN)
• Provides high-speed connections to the
Internet over both digital and standard
telephone lines
• Limited service
• Costly connection

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Digital Subscriber Lines
• Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL)
– Offers high-bandwidth Internet access over
existing copper telephone lines
– Splits your phone line into three information-
carrying channels
– DSL connections require special hardware at
the local telephone company’s central office
and at the user’s location

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Digital Subscriber Lines
• IAD (integrated access device)
– High-speed Internet access, and for multiple voice
lines
• ADSL (asymmetric DSL)
– Speed for sending data (upstream) is slower than
for receiving (downstream)
• VoDSL (voice over DSL)
– Voice services and high-speed data access over a
single telephone line
• SDSL (symmetric DSL)
– Same speed both
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Wolaita Sodo andof downstream
University,Department
251
T-1 and T-3 Lines
• T-1 line
– A dedicated connection that supports data rates of
1.544 Mb per second
– Made up of 24 channels
• T-3 line
– Supports data rates of 43Mbps and is made up of
672 channels that each support 64Kbps
• T-1 and T-3 lines can be used for both voice
and data communication
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• Dial-up Connection - An
Internet connection typically
provided through an ISP, such as
America Online. Dial-up
connections are typically the
slowest type of Internet
connection with download speeds
of 56 kbps (kilobits per second).

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Satellite - 400kbps receive 56kbps transmit.
You must also have a dial-up or other modem
to transmit.

T1 - A direct connection to the Internet.
Very fast at 1.5Mbps, but also very expensive.
Other Internet Services
• Internet telephony
– Voice over IP
– Allows users to speak to other users over
the internet

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Voice Over IP or VoIP
 Communication with colleagues all over the world

 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol),
sometimes referred to as Internet telephony,
is a method of digitizing voice, encapsulating
the digitized voice into packets and
transmitting those packets over a packet
switched IP network.

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Voice Over IP or VoIP
• Several services (fee or free)
– Skype
– NetMeeting
– MSN
– Yahoo

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Disadvantages of Internet
• Theft of personal information such as name, address, credit card number
etc.
• Virus threats nothing but a program which disrupts the normal functioning
of your system.
• Spamming refers to receiving unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no
purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system.
• Pornography This is perhaps the biggest threat related to children’s healthy
mental life. A very serious issue concerning the Internet.
Though, internet can also create havoc, destruction and its misuse
can be very fatal, the advantages of it outweigh its disadvantages.

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Intranet
What is Intranet ?
• Internal company network that uses Internet standards

(HTML, HTTP & TCP/IP protocols) & software.
• Accessed only by authorized persons, especially members or

employees of the organization

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The Role of Intranets
• Intranet characteristics include
– An intranet is a network inside an organization
that uses Internet technologies (such as web
browsers and servers, TCP/IP network protocols,
HTML hypermedia document publishing and
databases, and so on) to provide an Internet-like
environment within the enterprise for information
sharing, communications, collaboration, and the
support of business processes.

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The Role of Intranets
• Intranet characteristics cont…
– An Intranet is protected by security measures such
as passwords, encryption, and firewalls, and thus
can be accessed by authorized users through the
Internet.
– A Company’s Intranet can also be accessed
through the Intranets of customers, suppliers, and
other business partners via extranet links.

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The Business Value of Intranets

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The Business Value of Intranets
• Organisations are implementing a broad range of
Intranet uses. Several common functional Intranet
business applications include:
– Marketing
– Finance
– Human Resources
– Sales
– Manufacturing
– Training
– Customer Information

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Disadvantages of Intranet

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Extranet
What is Extranet ?
• Extranet is an Intranet for outside authorized users using
same internet technology.
• Inter-organizational information system.
• enable outsiders to work together with company’s
employees.
• open to selected suppliers, customers & other business
partners

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Extranet
• Extranets are network links that use Internet technologies to
interconnect the Intranet of a business with the Intranets of
its customers, suppliers, or other business partners.
Companies can:
– Establish direct private network links between themselves,
or create private secure Internet links between them
called virtual private networks(VPN).
– Use the unsecured Internet as the extranet link between
its Intranet and consumers and others, but rely on
encryption of sensitive data and its own firewall systems to
provide adequate security.

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Business Value of Extranets:
• The business value of extranets is derived from
several factors:
– The web browser technology of extranets makes customer and supplier
access of intranet resources a lot easier and faster than previous business
methods
– Extranets enable a company to offer new kinds of interactive Web-enabled
services to their business partners. Thus, extranets are another way that a
business can build and strengthen strategic relationships with its customers
and suppliers.
– Extranets enable and improve collaboration by a business with its customers
and other business partners.
– Extranets facilitate an online, interactive product development, marketing,
and customer-focused process that can bring better designed products to
market faster.

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Disadvantages of Extranet
• The suppliers & customer who don’t
have technical knowledge feel problem.
• Faceless contact.
• Information can be misused by other
competitors.
• Fraud may be possible.
• Technical Employees are required.

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Layered System View

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Chapter Eight
Network Topologies
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology

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Bus Topology
• In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable.
• The cable is terminated at its ends to avoid signal bouncing.
• When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it places the
data and address of the recipient computer on the cable. Only the
computer whose address is included with the data accepts the data.

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Bus topology diagram

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Bus topology
– Bus topology advantages
• Inexpensive
• Easy to design
• Easy to implement
– Bus topology disadvantages
• Difficult to troubleshoot
• Requires termination

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Bus topology

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The Star Topology
 Each computer in a star topology is connected to a central
device (hub) by a separate cable.
 When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it

sends the data and address of the recipient computer to the hub,
which in turn, sends it to every computer connected to it. Only the
computer whose address is included with the data will accepts the
data.

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Star topology diagram

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Star topology
– Star topology advantages
• Break in one cable does not affect other devices (except up links)
• Easy to locate problems
• Easy to install
• Does not require termination like bus topology
– Star topology disadvantages
• Center of star topology device (hub) can be expensive
• Hub failure can affect entire topology
• Amount of cable is expensive

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Star topology
Star topology
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The Ring Topology
• Each computer is connected directly to two other

computers in the network.
• Data moves down a one-way path from one computer and
if the next computer is the recipient it accepts the data;
otherwise it amplifies it and sends it to the next computer
down in the path.
• Any break disrupts the entire network and hence the
physical ring topology is seldom used.

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Ring topology diagram

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The Ring Topology
• Ring topology
– Ring topology advantages
• Prevents network collisions
• Each station acts like a repeater
– Ring topology disadvantages
• Cable break can affect all devices
• Temporarily shut down network to add a new station
• Maintenance and monitoring is difficult

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The Mesh Topology
• Each computer is directly connected to every other
computer.
• A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and
connections increase rapidly with the increase of computers
to connect. For n computers, n(n-1)/2 cables are required.
• Today, the mesh topology is rarely used, and then only in a
WAN environment and only because the mesh topology is
fault tolerant.
• Computers or network devices can switch between these
multiple, redundant connections if the need arises.
• On the con side, the mesh topology is expensive and
quickly becomes too complex.

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Mesh topology diagram

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Generally, balance the following
considerations when choosing a
physical topology for your network:
» Cost
» Ease of installation
» Ease of maintenance
» Cable fault tolerance

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Characteristics of Telecommunications
• Analog signal
– Fluctuates continuously
• Digital signal
– Discrete voltage
– State is either high or low
• Bandwidth
– Data transmission rate
– Measured in bits per second (bps)
• Broadband
– Connection that is always on or active

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Tasks required of all Communications
Systems
• Provide a high-level interface to the
application
• Establish, maintain, and terminate
the session gracefully
• Provide addressing and routing
• Provide synchronization and flow
control
• Provide message formatting
• Assure error-free reception (error
detection and error correction)
• Signal generation and detection
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What is a signal?
• Signals - electric or electromagnetic

representations of data
– a physical quantity, or quality, which conveys(caries)
information
– A function of independent variables such as time, distance,
position, temperature, pressure, etc.
• Examples: speech, music, seismic, image and video
– A signal can be a function of one, two or / independent
variables
• Speech is a 1-D signal as a function of time
• An image is a 2-D signal as a function of space
• Video is a 3-D signal as a function of space and time

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More Example Signals
EEG Stock price & volume
position
time
DTMF
Video

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time Informatiion Technology time
Types of Signals
Analog signal – a continuously
varying electromagnetic wave
that may be propagated over a
variety of medium depending on
the spectrum (e.g., wire, twisted
pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic
cable and atmosphere or space
propagation).

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ANALOG SIGNAL
• Continuous waveform
• Passes thru system
• Voice communications

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Types of Signals (cont.)
Digital signals: a sequence of
voltage pulses (in state of 0 ‘s
and 1’s that may be transmitted
over a wire medium.
Signals that are discrete in both the dependant and
independent variable (e.g., amplitude and time) are
digital signals.

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Digital versus Analog

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Analog Signals versus
Digital Signals
Analog signals:
• Continuous in both time and amplitude.
• Noise sensitive.
• Cannot be manipulated by the computer.
Digital signals:
• Discrete in both time and amplitude.
• Generally free from noise.
• Can be manipulated by the computer.
• cannot exactly represent or reconstruct analog signals.

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Analog and Digital Signaling
• Digital data can be represented by analog

signals using a modem
(modulator/demodulator).
The digital data is encoded on a carrier frequency.
• Analog data can be represented by digital
signals using a codec (coder-decoder).

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Frequency

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Network Architectures and Protocols
• Earlier years, there was a lack of sufficient standards for the
interfaces between the hardware, software, and
communications channels of data communications networks.
For this reason there is often a lack of compatibility between
the data communications hardware and software of different
manufacturers. This situation has:
– Hampered the use of data communications
– Increased data communications costs
– Reduced data communications efficiency and
effectiveness.

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Network Architectures and Protocols
• Industry Response:
– Computer manufacturers and national and
international organizations have developed
standards called protocols and master plans
called network architectures to support the
development of advanced data
communications networks.

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Protocols
• A protocol is the formal set of rules for
communicating, including rules for timing of
message exchanges, the type of electrical
connection used by the communications devices,
error detection techniques, means of gaining access
to communications channels, and so on.
• The goal of communications network architectures is
to create more standardization and compatibility
among communications protocols.

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Network architectures
• The goal of network architectures is to
promote an open, simple, flexible, and
efficient telecommunications environment.
This is accomplished by the use of:
– Standard protocols
– Standard communications hardware and
software interfaces
– Standard multilevel interface between end users
and computer systems.
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Network architectures
• The International Standards Organization (ISO) is working on
the establishment of a standard protocol for data
transmission.
• They have developed a seven-layer Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model to serve as a standard model for
network architectures.
• Dividing data communications functions into seven distinct
layers promotes the development of modular network
architectures, which assists the development, operation, and
maintenance of complex telecommunications networks.

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Rules that Govern Communications
• Communication in networks is governed by pre-defined rules called protocols.
• A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to perform a communication
function is called a protocol suite. These protocols are implemented in software
and hardware that is loaded on each host and network device
• Networking protocols suites describe processes such as:
- The format or structure of the message
- The process by which networking devices share information about pathways with
other networks
- How and when error and system messages are passed between devices
- The setup and termination of data transfer sessions
• Individual protocols in a protocol suite may be vendor-specific and proprietary.

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Network Protocol
• For devices to successfully communicate, a
network protocol suite must describe precise
requirements and interactions.

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Network Protocol
• Networking protocol suites describe processes such as:
– The format or structure of the message
– The method by which networking devices share information about
pathways with other networks
– How and when error and system messages are passed between
devices
– The setup and termination of data transfer sessions

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Protocol Suites & Industry Standard
• Many of the protocols that comprise a protocol suite
reference other widely utilized protocols or industry
standards
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
or the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• The use of standards in developing and implementing
protocols ensures that products from different
manufacturers can work together for efficient
communications

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Interaction of Protocols
Will learn more

in TCP/IP
model

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Interaction of Protocols
• Application protocol – HTTP. HTTP defines the content and formatting

of the requests and responses exchanged between the client and
server
• Transport Protocol – TCP. TCP divides the HTTP messages into smaller
segments. It is also responsible for controlling the size and rate of
message exchange.
• Internetwork Protocol – IP. It encapsulating segments into packets,
assigning the appropriate addresses, and selecting the best path to
the destination host.
• Network Access Protocol – Protocols for data link management and
the physical transmission of data on the media.

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Technology Independent Protocols

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Using Layer Models
• To visualize the interaction between various
protocols, it is common to use a layered
model.
• A layered model depicts the operation of the
protocols occurring within each layer, as well
as the interaction with the layers above and
below it

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Benefits Using Layer Models
• Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a
specific layer have defined information that they act upon and
a defined interface to the layers above and below.
• Fosters competition because products from different vendors
can work together.
• Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from
affecting other layers above and below.
• Provides a common language to describe networking
functions and capabilities.

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Benefits Using Layer Models

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Protocol and reference Model
• There are two basic types of networking
models:
– protocol models and
– reference models

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Protocol Model
• A protocol model provides a model that
closely matches the structure of a particular
protocol suite.
• The hierarchical set of related protocols in a
suite typically represents all the functionality
required to interface the human network with
the data network. Ex: TCP/IP model

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Reference Model
• A reference model provides a common reference for
maintaining consistency within all types of network protocols
and services.
• A reference model is not intended to be an implementation
specification or to provide a sufficient level of detail to define
precisely the services of the network architecture.
• The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer
understanding of the functions and process involved
Ex: OSI model

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OSI reference model
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the most
widely known internetwork reference model
– It is used for data network design, operation specifications, and
troubleshooting.
– The OSI reference model is the primary model for network
communications
– Allows you to view the network functions that occur at each layer
– It is a framework that you can use to understand how information
travels throughout a network
– 7 layers -- each of which illustrates a particular network function

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OSI 7 layers

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Models Provide Guidance

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OSI – The Application Layer
• Provides network services

to the user's applications.
• It does not provide
services to any other OSI
layer
• ***Think of any network
application you use daily

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OSI – The Presentation Layer
• It ensures that the
information that the
application layer of one
system sends out is
readable by the
application layer of
another system.
• *** Think of any common
file formats (JPEG, txt etc)

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OSI – The Session Layer
• *** After you prepare your

data, you need to establish
the communication
channels to send data
• This layer establishes,
manages, and terminates
sessions between two
communicating hosts.
• It also synchronizes
dialogue between the two
hosts' presentation layers
and manages their data
exchange.

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OSI – The Transport Layer
• Data will be segmented

and send to
destination device.
Transport layer of
destination device will
reassemble them.
• This layer handles
details of reliable
transfer. (ensures that
the data arrive
completely )

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OSI – The Network Layer
• Many paths to the same

destination. So, which
path to follow?
• Segmented data needs
address to reach the
destination (network
address)
• This layer handle 2 above
stated issues.

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OSI – The Data Link Layer
• It provides means for

exchanging data frames
over a common media
• To detect and possibly
correct errors that may
occur in the Physical layer
• Physical Addressing,
topologies and flow
control

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OSI – The Physical Layer
• It defines the electrical,

mechanical, procedural, and
functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and
deactivating the physical link
between end systems.
• Voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, physical
data rates, maximum
transmission distances,
physical connectors, and
other, similar, attributes
defined by physical layer
specifications.

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TCP/IP Model

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Comparison
--Both have application

layers, though they include
very different services
--Both have comparable
transport and network
(Internet) layers
--TCP/IP combines the
presentation and session
layer issues into its
application layer
--TCP/IP combines the OSI
data link and physical layers
into one layer
--TCP/IP appears simpler
because it has fewer layers

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Comparison

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Protocol Data Unit(PDU) and
Encapsulation
• As application data is passed down the protocol stack
on its way to be transmitted across the network
media, various protocols add information to it at
each level. This is commonly known as the
encapsulation process.
• The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is
called a Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

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Protocol Data Unit(PDU) and
Encapsulation
• During encapsulation, each succeeding layer encapsulates the
PDU that it receives from the layer above in accordance with
the protocol being used.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to
reflect its new appearance. Although there is no universal
naming convention for PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are
named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite.

08/02/2021 330
Name of PDUs according to the protocols
of the TCP/IP suite.
• Data - The general term for the PDU used at
the Application layer
• Segment - Transport Layer PDU
• Packet - Internetwork Layer PDU
• Frame - Network Access Layer PDU
• Bits - A PDU used when physically transmitting
data over the medium

08/02/2021 331
Encapsulation

08/02/2021 332
Data Encapsulation
• Build the data
• Package the data for end
to end support
(Segments)
• The data is put into a
packet or datagram that
contains a network
header with source and
destination logical
addresses

08/02/2021 333
Data Encapsulation
• Each network device must
put the packet into a
frame.
• The frame must be
converted into a pattern
of 1s and 0s (bits)
• ***Data  Segments 
Packet  Frames  Bits

08/02/2021 334
Chapter Nine
Electronic Business and Electronic
Commerce Technologies

08/02/2021 335
Electronic Business and Electronic Commerce Technologies
Electronic Mail and Groupware
• E-mail
• Eliminates telephone tag and costly long-distance
telephone charges
• Groupware
• Enables work groups at different locations to
participate in discussion forums and work on shared
documents and projects

08/02/2021 336
Voice Mail and Fax
• Voice mail
• Digitizes spoken message and transmits it over a
network
• Fax
• Digitizes and transmits documents over telephone
lines

08/02/2021 337
• Teleconferencing
• Ability to confer with a group of people
simultaneously
• Data conferencing
• Two or more users can edit and modify data files
simultaneously
• Videoconferencing
• Participants are able to see each other over video
screens

08/02/2021 338
• Digital Information Services:

• Online services providing general and business
information, example : News
• Distance learning
• Education or training delivered over a distance to
individuals in one or more locations
• E-learning
• Instruction delivered online using the Internet or
private networks

08/02/2021 339
• Computer-to-computer exchange between two

organizations of standard transaction documents,
such as invoices, purchase orders
• Minimizes paper-handling and data input; lowers
transaction costs
• Transmits structured data with fields, unlike e-mail

08/02/2021 340

08/02/2021 341
Developing a Business-Driven Telecommunications Plan
Implementation Issues: Seven Factors
1. Distance
2. Services
3. Points of access
4. Utilization
5. Cost
6. Security
7. Connectivity

08/02/2021 342
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• The Internet is the driving force behind developments in telecommunications, networks,
and other information technologies. Do you agree or disagree?
• How is the trend toward open systems, connectivity, and interoperability related to
business use of the Internet, intranets, and extranets?
• How will wireless information appliances and services affect the business use of the
Internet and the Web?
• What are some of the business benefits and management challenges of client/server
networks? Network computing? Peer-to-peer networks?
• What is the business value driving so many companies to rapidly install and extend
intranets throughout their organizations?
• What strategic competitive benefits do you see in a company’s use of extranets?
• Do you think that business use of the Internet, intranets, and extranets has changed what
businesspeople expect from information technology in their jobs?
• Do you believe that the insatiable demand for everything wireless, video, and Web-enabled
will be the driving force behind developments in telecommunications, networking, and
computing technologies for the foreseeable future?

08/02/2021 343

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Chapter One

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Objective: Ability to communicate over

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

• Source - the originator of the message, whether it is a

• Transmitter - the equipment that modifies the message

• Communications channel - the means of carrying the

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

• Transmission media - may be physical, like a copper

• Receiver - is the device that captures the message from

• Destination - the person or machine to whom the

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

•Should be capable of carrying

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

• Many different telecommunications networks

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

The most important European standards

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of

• The basic purpose of a telecommunications network

Wolaita Sodo University,Department of