GEOGG141/ GEOG3051 Principles & Practice of Remote Sensing EM Radiation (Ii)

UCL DEPARTMENT
UCL DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

OF GEOGRAPHY
GEOGG141/ GEOG3051
Principles & Practice of Remote Sensing
EM Radiation (ii)
Dr. Mathias (Mat) Disney

UCL Geography
Office: 113, Pearson Building
Tel: 7679 0592
Email: mdisney@ucl.geog.ac.uk
http://www2.geog.ucl.ac.uk/~mdisney/teaching/GEOGG141/GEOGG141.html
http://www2.geog.ucl.ac.uk/~mdisney/teaching/3051/GEOG3051.html
EMR arriving at Earth

• We now know how EMR spectrum is distributed
• Radiant energy arriving at Earth’s surface
• NOT blackbody, but close
• “Solar constant”
• solar energy irradiating surface perpendicular to solar beam
• ~1373Wm-2 at top of atmosphere (TOA)
• Mean distance of sun ~1.5x108km so total solar energy emitted = 4r2x1373
= 3.88x1026W
• Incidentally we can now calculate Tsun (radius=6.69x108m) from SB Law
• T4sun = 3.88x1026/4 r2 so T = ~5800K
2
Departure from blackbody assumption
• Interaction with gases in the atmosphere

– attenuation of solar radiation
3
Radiation Geometry: spatial relations

• Now cover what happens when radiation interacts with
Earth System
• Atmosphere
• On the way down AND way up
• Surface
• Multiple interactions between surface and atmosphere
• Absorption/scattering of radiation in the atmosphere
4
Radiation passing through media
• Various interactions, with different results
From http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/Part2_3html.html
5
Radiation Geometry: spatial relations

• Definitions of radiometric quantities
• Radiant energy emitted, transmitted of received per unit time is
radiant flux (usually Watts, or Js-1)
• Radiant flux density is flux per unit area (Wm-2)
• Irradiance is radiant flux density incident on a surface (Wm-2) e.g. Solar
radiation arriving at surface
• Emittance (radiance or radiant exitance) (Wm-2) is radiant flux density
emitted by a surface
• For parallel beam, flux density defined in terms of plane
perpendicular to beam. What about from a point?
6
Radiation Geometry: point source
Point source d dF dA
• Consider flux dF emitted from point source into solid angle d, where dF and d
very small
• Intensity I defined as flux per unit solid angle i.e. I = dF/d (Wsr-1)
• Solid angle d = dA/r2 (steradians, sr)
7
Radiation Geometry: plane source

 dF
Plane source dS
dS cos 
• What about when we have a plane source rather than a point?

• Element of surface with area dS emits flux dF in direction at angle  to normal
• Radiant emittance, M = dF / dS (Wm-2)
• Radiance L is intensity in a particular direction (dI = dF/) divided by the apparent area of
source in that direction i.e. flux per unit area per solid angle (Wm -2sr-1)
• Projected area of dS is direction  is dS cos , so…..
• Radiance L = (dF/) / dS cos  = dI/dS cos  (Wm-2sr-1)
8
Radiation Geometry: radiance

• So, radiance equivalent to:
• intensity of radiant flux observed in a particular direction
divided by apparent area of source in same direction
• Note on solid angle (steradians):
• 3D analog of ordinary angle (radians)
• 1 steradian = angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by an
area of surface equal to the square of the radius. The surface of
a sphere subtends an angle of 4 steradians at its centre.
9
Radiation Geometry: solid angle
• Cone of solid angle  = 1sr • Radiant intensity

from sphere
•  = area of surface A / radius2
From http://www.intl-light.com/handbook/ch07.html 10
Radiation Geometry: terms and units
11
Radiation Geometry: cosine law

• Emission and absorption
• Radiance linked to law describing spatial distn of radiation emitted by
Bbody with uniform surface temp. T (total emitted flux = T4)
• Surface of Bbody then has same T from whatever angle viewed
• So intensity of radiation from point on surface, and areal element of
surface MUST be independent of , angle to surface normal
• OTOH flux per unit solid angle divided by true area of surface must be
proportional to cos 
12
Radiation Geometry: cosine law

X
Radiometer dA
Y X
Radiometer

Y
dA/cos 
• Case 1: radiometer ‘sees’ dA, flux proportional to dA
• Case 2: radiometer ‘sees’ dA/cos  (larger) BUT T same, so emittance of
surface same and hence radiometer measures same
• So flux emitted per unit area at angle   to cos  so that product of
emittance ( cos  ) and area emitting ( 1/ cos ) is same for all 
• This is basis of Lambert’s Cosine Law
Adapted from Monteith and Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics 13

Radiation Geometry: Lambert’s Cosine Law

• When radiation emitted from Bbody at angle  to normal, then
flux per unit solid angle emitted by surface is  cos 
• Corollary of this:
• if Bbody exposed to beam of radiant energy at an angle  to normal, the
flux density of absorbed radiation is  cos 
• In remote sensing we generally need to consider directions of
both incident AND reflected radiation, then reflectivity is
described as bi-directional
Adapted from Monteith and Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics

14
Recap: radiance
• Radiance, L
d
• power emitted (dF) per unit of solid
angle (d) and per unit of the projected 
surface (dS cos) of an extended
widespread source in a given direction,
 ( = zenith angle, = azimuth angle) Projected surface dS cos 
• L = d2F / (d dS cos ) (in Wm-2sr-1)

• If radiance is not dependent on  i.e. if
same in all directions, the source is said
to be Lambertian. Ordinary surfaces
rarely found to be Lambertian.
Ad. From http://ceos.cnes.fr:8100/cdrom-97/ceos1/science/baphygb/chap2/chap2.htm 15

Recap: emittance
• Emittance, M (exitance)
• emittance (M) is the power emitted
(dW) per surface unit of an extended
widespread source, throughout an
hemisphere. Radiance is therefore
integrated over an hemisphere. If
radiance independent of  i.e. if same
in all directions, the source is said to be
Lambertian.
• For Lambertian surface
• Remember L = d2F / (d dS cos ) =
constant, so M = dF/dS =
• M = L
ò
p 2 p 2
L cosy dw =2p L ò cosy siny dy =pL
0 0
16
Ad. From http://ceos.cnes.fr:8100/cdrom-97/ceos1/science/baphygb/chap2/chap2.htm
Recap: irradiance
• Radiance, L, defined as
directional (function of
angle) Direct
• from source dS along viewing
angle of sensor ( in this 2D
case, but more generally (, ) in
3D case)
• Emittance, M, hemispheric
• Why?? Diffuse
• Solar radiation scattered by
atmosphere
• So we have direct AND diffuse
components
Ad. From http://ceos.cnes.fr:8100/cdrom-97/ceos1/science/baphygb/chap2/chap2.htm 17

Reflectance
• Spectral reflectance, (), defined as ratio of incident flux to
reflected flux at same wavelength
• () = L()/I()
• Extreme cases:
• Perfectly specular: radiation incident at angle  reflected away from surface
at angle -
• Perfectly diffuse (Lambertian): radiation incident at angle  reflected
equally in all angles
18
Interactions with the atmosphere
From http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Intro/Part2_4.html 19
Interactions with the atmosphere
R4
R1 R2 R3
target target target target
• Notice that target reflectance is a function of

• Atmospheric irradiance
• reflectance outside target scattered into path
• diffuse atmospheric irradiance
• multiple-scattered surface-atmosphere interactions
20
From: http://www.geog.ucl.ac.uk/~mdisney/phd.bak/final_version/final_pdf/chapter2a.pdf
Interactions with the atmosphere: refraction
• Caused by atmosphere at different T having different

density, hence refraction
• path of radiation alters moving from medium of one density to
another (different velocity)
• index of refraction (n) is ratio of speed of light in a vacuum (c)
to speed cn in another medium (e.g. Air) i.e. n = c/cn
• note that n always >= 1 i.e. cn <= c
• Examples
• nair = 1.0002926
• nwater = 1.33
21
Refraction: Snell’s Law

Incident
• Refraction described by Snell’s Law radiation
• For given freq. f, n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

n1
• where 1 and 2 are the angles from the Optically
1
less dense
normal of the incident and refracted waves
respectively Optically
more
• (non-turbulent) atmosphere can be n2 dense
2
considered as layers of gases, each with Optically

Path
3 unaffected
a different density (hence n) less dense
n3
by
atmosphere
• Displacement of path - BUT knowing
Path affected by
Snell’s Law can be removed atmosphere
22
After: Jensen, J. (2000) Remote sensing of the environment: an Earth Resources Perspective.
Interactions with the atmosphere: scattering
• Caused by presence of particles (soot, salt,

etc.) and/or large gas molecules present in
the atmosphere
• Interact with EMR anc cause to be
redirected from original path.
• Scattering amount depends on:
•  of radiation
• abundance of particles or gases
• distance the radiation travels through the
atmosphere (path length)
23
After: http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/learn/tutorials/fundam/chapter1/chapter1_4_e.html
Atmospheric scattering 1: Rayleigh
• Particle size <<  of radiation

• e.g. very fine soot and dust or N2, O2
molecules
• Rayleigh scattering dominates shorter 
and in upper atmos.
• i.e. Longer  scattered less (visible red  scattered
less than blue )
• Hence during day, visible blue  tend to dominate
(shorter path length)
• Longer path length at sunrise/sunset so
proportionally more visible blue  scattered out of
path so sky tends to look more red
• Even more so if dust in upper atmosphere
• http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/corfidi/sunset/
• http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/educ/activit/bluesky.htm
24
Atmospheric scattering 1: Rayleigh
• So, scattering  -4 so scattering of blue light (400nm) > scattering of red
light (700nm) by (700/400)4 or ~ 9.4
25
From http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/blusky.html
Atmospheric scattering 2: Mie
• Particle size   of radiation

• e.g. dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour
• Affects longer  than Rayleigh, BUT weak dependence on 
• Mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere
• larger particles are more abundant
• dominates when cloud conditions are overcast
• i.e. large amount of water vapour (mist, cloud, fog) results in almost
totally diffuse illumination
26
Atmospheric scattering 3: Non-selective

• Particle size >>  of radiation
• e.g. Water droplets and larger dust
particles,
• All  affected about equally (hence
name!)
• Hence results in fog, mist, clouds
etc. appearing white
• white = equal scattering of red,
green and blue  s
27
Atmospheric absorption
• Other major interaction with signal
• Gaseous molecules in atmosphere can
absorb photons at various 
• depends on vibrational modes of molecules
• Very dependent on 
• Main components are:
• CO2, water vapour and ozone (O3)
• Also CH4 ....
• O3 absorbs shorter  i.e. protects us from UV
radiation
28
Atmospheric absorption
• CO2 as a “greenhouse” gas
• strong absorber in longer (thermal) part of EM
spectrum
• i.e. 10-12m where Earth radiates
• Remember peak of Planck function for T = 300K
• So shortwave solar energy (UV, vis, SW and NIR)
is absorbed at surface and re-radiates in thermal
• CO2 absorbs re-radiated energy and keeps warm
• $64M question!
• Does increasing CO2  increasing T??
• Anthropogenic global warming??
• Aside....
29
Atmospheric CO2 trends
• Antarctic ice core

records
• Keeling et al.
• Annual variation + trend
• Smoking gun for anthropogenic
change, or natural variation??
30
Atmospheric “windows”
Atmospheric
windows
• As a result of strong  dependence of absorption

• Some  totally unsuitable for remote sensing as most
radiation absorbed 31
• If you want to look at surface

– Look in atmospheric windows where transmissions high
• If you want to look at atmosphere however....pick gaps
• Very important when selecting instrument channels
– Note atmosphere nearly transparent in wave i.e. can see through clouds!
– V. Important consideration....
32
• Vivisble + NIR part of the spectrum

– windows, roughly: 400-750, 800-1000, 1150-1300, 1500-1600, 2100-2250nm
33
Summary
• Measured signal is a function of target reflectance
– plus atmospheric component (scattering, absorption)
– Need to choose appropriate regions (atmospheric windows)
• μ-wave region largely transparent i.e. can see through clouds in this region
• one of THE major advantages of μ-wave remote sensing
• Top-of-atmosphere (TOA) signal is NOT target signal
• To isolate target signal need to...
– Remove/correct for effects of atmosphere
– A major part component of RS pre-processing chain
• Atmospheric models, ground observations, multiple views of surface through
different path lengths and/or combinations of above
34
Summary
• Generally, solar radiation reaching the surface composed of
– <= 75% direct and >=25 % diffuse
• attentuation even in clearest possible conditions
– minimum loss of 25% due to molecular scattering and absorption
about equally
– Normally, aerosols responsible for significant increase in
attenuation over 25%
– HENCE ratio of diffuse to total also changes
– AND spectral composition changes
35
Reflectance
• When EMR hits target (surface)
• Range of surface reflectance behaviour
• perfect specular (mirror-like) - incidence angle = exitance angle
• perfectly diffuse (Lambertian) - same reflectance in all directions
independent of illumination angle)
Natural surfaces
somewhere in
between
36
From http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/learn/tutorials/fundam/chapter1/chapter1_5_e.html
Surface energy budget

• Total amount of radiant flux per
wavelength incident on surface, ()
Wm-1 is summation of:
• reflected r, transmitted t, and absorbed, a
• i.e. () = r + t + a
• So need to know about surface reflectance,
transmittance and absorptance
• Measured RS signal is combination of all 3
components
After: Jensen, J. (2000) Remote sensing of the environment: an Earth Resources Perspective. 37
Reflectance: angular distribution

• Real surfaces usually
display some degree of
reflectance
ANISOTROPY
(a) (b)
• Lambertian surface is
isotropic by definition
• Most surfaces have some
level of anisotropy
(c) (d)
Figure 2.1 Four examples of surface reflectance: (a) Lambertian reflectance (b)
non-Lambertian (directional) reflectance (c) specular (mirror-like) reflectance (d)
retro-reflection peak (hotspot).
38
Directional reflectance: BRDF

• Reflectance of most real surfaces is a function of not only λ, but viewing and
illumination angles
• Described by the Bi-Directional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF)
• BRDF of area A defined as: ratio of incremental radiance, dLe, leaving
surface through an infinitesimal solid angle in direction (v, v), to
incremental irradiance, dEi, from illumination direction ’(i, i) i.e.
BRDF (Ω, Ω' ) 

dLe (Ω, Ω' )
dEi (Ω' )
sr 1  
•  is viewing vector (v, v) are view zenith and azimuth angles; ’ is illum.
vector (i, i) are illum. zenith and azimuth angles
• So in sun-sensor example,  is position of sensor and ’ is position of sun
39
After: Jensen, J. (2000) Remote sensing of the environment: an Earth Resources Perspective.

• Note that BRDF defined over infinitesimally small solid angles , ’ and
 interval, so cannot measure directly
• In practice measure over some finite angle and  and assume valid
viewer
incident direct irradiance
diffuse (Ei) vector 
exitant solid radiation
incident solid
angle 
angle 
v
i
2-v i
surface tangent vector surface area A
Configuration of viewing and illumination vectors in the viewing hemisphere,

with respect to an element of surface area, A.
40

• Spectral behaviour depends on illuminated/viewed amounts of material
• Change view/illum. angles, change these proportions so change reflectance
• Information contained in angular signal related to size, shape and distribution of
objects on surface (structure of surface)
• Typically CANNOT assume surfaces are Lambertian (isotropic)
Modelled barley reflectance, v from –50o to 0o (left to right, top to bottom).
41
Directional Information
42
Directional Information
43
Features of BRDF
• Bowl shape
– increased scattering due
to increased path length
through canopy
44
Features of BRDF
• Bowl shape
– increased scattering due
to increased path length
through canopy
45
46
Features of BRDF
• Hot Spot
– mainly shadowing
minimum
– so reflectance higher
47
The “hotspot”
See http://www.ncaveo.ac.uk/test_sites/harwood_forest/
48
49

• Good explanation of BRDF:
• http://geography.bu.edu/brdf/brdfexpl.html
50
• Hotspot effect
from MODIS
image over
Brazil
51
Measuring BRDF via RS

• Need multi-angle observations. Can do three ways:
• multiple cameras on same platform (e.g. MISR, POLDER,
POLDER 2). BUT quite complex technically.
• Broad swath with large overlap so multiple orbits build up
multiple view angles e.g. MODIS, SPOT-VGT, AVHRR. BUT
surface can change from day to day.
• Pointing capability e.g. CHRIS-PROBA, SPOT-HRV. BUT
again technically difficult
52
Albedo
• Total irradiant energy (both direct and diffuse) reflected in all directions from
the surface i.e. ratio of total outgoing to total incoming
• Defines lower boundary condition of surface energy budget hence v. imp. for
climate studies - determines how much incident solar radiation is absorbed
• Albedo is BRDF integrated over whole viewing/illumination hemisphere
• Define directional hemispherical refl (DHR) - reflectance integrated over whole
viewing hemisphere resulting from directional illumination
• and bi-hemispherical reflectance (BHR) - integral of DHR with respect to
hemispherical (diffuse) illumination
1 2
DHR =   Ω; 2    BRDF  Ω, Ω dΩ

2 2 2
1
BHR =   2 ;2      Ω dΩ    BRDF  Ω, Ω dΩdΩ

53
Albedo
• Actual albedo lies somewhere between DHR and BHR
• Broadband albedo, , can be approximated as
  p      d
SW
• where p() is proportion of solar irradiance at ; and () is spectral albedo

• so p() is function of direct and diffuse components of solar radiation and so is
dependent on atmospheric state
• Hence albedo NOT intrinsic surface property (although BRDF is)
54
Typical albedo values
55
Surface spectral information
• Causes of spectral variation in reflectance?

• (bio)chemical & structural properties
• e.g. In vegetation, phytoplankton: chlorophyll concentration
• soil - minerals/ water/ organic matter
• Can consider spectral properties as continuous
• e.g. mapping leaf area index or canopy cover
• or discrete variable
• e.g. spectrum representative of cover type (classification)
56
Surface spectral information: vegetation
57
vegetation
Surface spectral information: vegetation
58
vegetation
Surface spectral information: soil
59
soil
Surface spectral information: canopy
60
Summary
• Last week
• Introduction to EM radiation, the EM spectrum, properties of wave /
particle model of EMR
• Blackbody radiation, Stefan-Boltmann Law, Wien’s Law and Planck
function
• This week
• radiation geometry
• interaction of EMR with atmosphere
• atmospheric windows
• interaction of EMR with surface (BRDF, albedo)
• angular and spectral reflectance properties
61

GEOGG141/ GEOG3051 Principles & Practice of Remote Sensing EM Radiation (Ii)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

GEOGG141/ GEOG3051 Principles & Practice of Remote Sensing EM Radiation (Ii)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

GEOGG141/ GEOG3051 Principles & Practice of Remote Sensing EM Radiation (Ii)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UCL DEPARTMENT

UCL DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

Dr. Mathias (Mat) Disney

EMR arriving at Earth

Departure from blackbody assumption

• Interaction with gases in the atmosphere

Radiation Geometry: spatial relations

Radiation passing through media

• Various interactions, with different results

Radiation Geometry: spatial relations

Radiation Geometry: point source

Radiation Geometry: plane source

• What about when we have a plane source rather than a point?

Radiation Geometry: radiance

Radiation Geometry: solid angle

• Cone of solid angle  = 1sr • Radiant intensity

Radiation Geometry: terms and units

Radiation Geometry: cosine law

Radiation Geometry: cosine law

Adapted from Monteith and Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics 13

Radiation Geometry: Lambert’s Cosine Law

Adapted from Monteith and Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics

• L = d2F / (d dS cos ) (in Wm-2sr-1)

Ad. From http://ceos.cnes.fr:8100/cdrom-97/ceos1/science/baphygb/chap2/chap2.htm 15

Ad. From http://ceos.cnes.fr:8100/cdrom-97/ceos1/science/baphygb/chap2/chap2.htm 17

Interactions with the atmosphere

Interactions with the atmosphere

target target target target

• Notice that target reflectance is a function of

Interactions with the atmosphere: refraction

• Caused by atmosphere at different T having different

Refraction: Snell’s Law

• For given freq. f, n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2

considered as layers of gases, each with Optically

Interactions with the atmosphere: scattering

• Caused by presence of particles (soot, salt,

Atmospheric scattering 1: Rayleigh

• Particle size <<  of radiation

Atmospheric scattering 1: Rayleigh

Atmospheric scattering 2: Mie

• Particle size   of radiation

Atmospheric scattering 3: Non-selective

Atmospheric CO2 trends

• Antarctic ice core

• As a result of strong  dependence of absorption

• If you want to look at surface

• Vivisble + NIR part of the spectrum

Surface energy budget

Reflectance: angular distribution

Directional reflectance: BRDF

BRDF (Ω, Ω' ) 

Directional reflectance: BRDF

surface tangent vector surface area A

Configuration of viewing and illumination vectors in the viewing hemisphere,

Directional reflectance: BRDF

Modelled barley reflectance, v from –50o to 0o (left to right, top to bottom).

Directional reflectance: BRDF