Oceanography

Topics under Oceanography

Ocean Bottom Relief

Ocean Currents

Ocean Tide

Salinity of Ocean water

Temperature of Oceans

Coral Reef
 Ocean Bottom Relief
Oceanic crust –first order relief – most
fundamental –basaltic
Oceanic crust thickness = 1-3 km, darker in
colour, higher density
Oceanic crust created at MOR and destroyed at
trenches
Ocean floor is not flat. More diversity than on
continents
Ocean Bottom Relief
 Division of Ocean Bottom

3 divisions:
1) Ocean –
continent
margin
2) Deep
Ocean
plains
3) MOR
 Ocean-Continent margins

1) Continental
shelf
2) Continental
slope
3) Continental
rise
 Ocean- continent margin landforms

Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise

 Continental shelf
• Shallowest part
• Depth ~ 200 m
• photic zone
• Marine life- floating
planktons, benthos
(crabs) and nektons
(fishes)
• sediments from land
= terrigenous
Resources from continental shelf
• 90 % of Petroleum
reserves of the world
found in continental
shelves
Bombay high, gulf of
Cambay, Persian Gulf,
North Sea, Barents sea,
gulf of Mexico,
Norwegian sea
 Persian gulf
Petroleum reserves Strait of Hormuz
Oil exploration in Barents sea
• Petroleum reserve
• Russia started
exploration
• Protest from
environmentalists –
Greenpeace
• “Rainbow warriors”
Arctic Ocean
• Melting due to global
warming
• New sea route from
Europe to Russia
• Potential petroleum
reserve
• Artic ocean- global
commons
• Arctic council
Resource at continental shelf

• Sulphur – rarely found on

land. Available in sea
during marine volcanism.
Ex. Gulf of Mexico – rich
source of sulphur
Resources from continental shelf
Placer deposits
Wave action erode the
beach rocks
some stable minerals
freed from the rocks due
to weathering
waves shift the lighter
material more rapidly
than heavier
concentration of heavy
minerals on shelf
Resources from continental shelf
• monazite sand
(source of thorium)
at Kerala coast

• Gold (Alaska)
• Zircon (Brazil,
Australia)
• Diamond (South
Africa)
Resource at continental shelf
• Calcium- least soluble in
ocean water – Peruvian
coast rich deposits of
calcium and phosphate
• Fishes are rich in nitrate
and phosphate, high
protein, medicinal use
• Pearls
 Ocean- continent margin landforms

Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise

Continental slope
• Very steep slope
• Massive landslides of
terrigenous deposits
• Rivers like, Ganga, Indus,
Mississippi, Yukon and
Congo have created
submarine canyons
• Highest waterfall on earth
– under Denmark Strait.
 Ocean- continent margin landforms

Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise

Continental Rise

• Transition zone
between
continental block
and oceanic block
Continental rise
• They are absent
near trenches, as
subduction near
trenches
consumes the
deposition of
Continental rise
 Ocean- continent margin landforms

Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise

 Division of Ocean Bottom
3 divisions:
1) Ocean –
continent
margin
2) MOR
3) Deep Ocean
plains
Abyssal Plain
• Occupies 40% of the
ocean floor
• Tremendous diversity
in terms of landforms
• It has deposits from
continents
(terrigenous), marine
life (biogenous) and
salts and mineral
(inorganic)
 Resources from Abyssal plain
• PMN (Poly Metallic
Nodules) or
Manganese nodules
• Concentration of
metals around a core
• Depth 4000-6000m
Global distribution of PMN
• First found in Kara
sea, Arctic ocean
• These nodules are
found in the all the
oceans –
economically
viable -central
Indian Ocean and
Eastern Pacific
Ocean.
 PMN
• PMN are small nodules
of metals like,
Manganese, Iron, Silicon,
Al, Nickel and Cobalt
etc.
• some of the minerals are
rare on land.
• Countries are in race to
explore and extract PMN
2002- India got approval from ISA –
India
‘Pioneer Investor’ for 15 years
 India - 1,50,000 ml ha ocean stretch in PMN
central Indian Ocean out of 10 to15 ml ha
of PMN
India RV Samudra Ratnakar + equipment
from S Korea
NIOT – developing tech for exploration
2011 - China acquired 10,000 ha area
2013 – UK co. in Pacific ocean
 ISA
UN convention on Laws of the seas
1983
60 countries signed UNCLOS
came into force in 1993
1) Decides the maritime boundary
2) Deep sea mining (ISA, Kingston,
Jamaica)
3) Environment protection
4) Dispute settlement
UNCLOS
• Decides territorial
waters, contiguous
zone and EEZ for
coastal countries
• EEZ – special right
of the state to
explore minerals or
produce energy from
the area
 Question
Q. Critically evaluate the various
resources of the oceans which can be
harnessed to meet the resource crisis in UPSC
the world (10)
Mains
2014
 Types of Islands
4 types of Islands:
1) Volcanic (plate/ hot spot)
2) Continental
3) Coral islands
4) Sand bar islands
 Types of Islands
Island Formation
continental Once part of large
continent
volcanic O-O plate collision,
Hot spot
coral Formed due to coral
reefs
Sand-bar island Accumulation of sand
near the coast
 Types of Islands
Continental Islands Volcanic islands
 Types of Islands
Sand-bar islands Coral Islands
 Example of Islands
Volcanic Continental Coral Sandbar

Japan Shri Lanka Lakshadweep Long Island

(New York)
Philippines Madagascar Maldives

Kurile Vancouver Mauritius

Aleutian Baffin Island Bahama,

Bermuda
Coral Reefs
• Indicative of
health of Marine
ecology
• Primary food-
chain
• Source of great
biodiversity
 Coral Reefs
Corals = tiny fleshy sea anemones polyps.
They extract Ca from the sea water for their
skeletons to protect their bodies.
 One generation die on previous generation.
Corals live symbiotic relationship with
microscopic plant – Zooxanthalae, photosynthesis
capabilities.
 Zooxanthalae provide food to corals and corals
provide protection to zooxanthalae
 Condition for growth of Corals
Need submarine shallow platform (50 meter
deep)– to receive sun light
Temperature- 25-27 degree
Warm, tropical and low latitude waters
Salinity – 33 ppt
Not at mouth of river, No turbulent water
Need circulating nutrient rich water
Spatial distribution of Corals
 Coral Bleaching
• When corals are in
stress they expel
zooxanthalae –
that’s why coral
seem white =>
coral bleaching.
Ultimately, without
food coral die
 Reason of coral Bleaching
Global warming => increase in sea surface
temperature
Ozone depletion => increase in solar irradiation
Ocean acidification
algal bloom
Increase sedimentation from rivers
Marine pollution – oil spill
Diseases  
Distribution of Coral Bleaching
Formation of coral reef
• Corals can be developed
both at the margins of
the continents or around
islands
• 3 stages of coral
formation
1) Fringing reef
2) Barrier reef
3) Atoll
Fringing reef
• Coral reef developed
along margin of an island
• If Gap is created between
corals and the surface of
island
• Small water bodies =
lagoons
Barrier reef
• Reef is not continuous
but broken
• Lagoon can connect to
open ocean
• Most extensive
• If they are parallel to
coast -> barrier reef
Atoll
• The hill submerged
• Only narrow ring of coral
is visible
Fringing Reef Atolls
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
Marine pollution

• Dangerous for marine

biodiversity
• Marine diversity is the
wealth of the earth
• Harmful to global
environment
 Marine pollution
Issue effect
Oil spill Marine life – devoid of
sunlight and oxygen
Run-off from land Eutrophication - Algal
bloom
Atmospheric input makes ocean water acidic
Dumping of toxic elements Toxicity harms marine
organism
Ballistic water issue Danger to biodiversity
Tar balls
• Tar balls — lumps of
petroleum
• oil spillage from
tankers
• The wax-like lumps
are caused due to the
reaction of the oil with
sea water
• Sticky and greasy
Ocean bottom relief:
1) Continental shelf
2) Continental slope
3) Continental rise
4) Abyssal plain
Types of islands
Formation of coral
Marine pollution
 Motion of Ocean water

●
waves
Horizontal ●
currents

●
tides
Vertical ●
Up-welling
 Waves
Creation of waves:
wind pushes the water body
 gravity pulls the crests of the waves downward,
the falling water pushes the former troughs
upward.
Actual motion of water beneath the wave is
circular
Waves
Breaking up of the waves

• when the depth of

water is less than
half the
wavelength of the
wave, the wave
breaks
 Motion of Ocean water

●
waves
Horizontal ●
currents

●
tides
Vertical ●
Up-welling
 Ocean Currents
Ocean currents are narrow and shallow (up to
500 meter deep), stream of water circulating
along the Ocean margins
Circumnavigate the earth
 Ocean currents
• Heat distribution
– from Poles to
Eq.
• warm water from
equator
• Cold water from
Poles
 Forces responsible for Ocean Current
Wind

Insolation

Gravity

Coriolis Force
Dominant force : wind
• Most of the
currents
follow the
direction of
the trade
winds,
Westerlies
and polar
easterlies
 Insolation: temperature gradient
Water expands under high temperature
Cold water near poles
Water lighter near equator, than at the poles
Cold water - heavier (denser) sinks downward
Cold water from pole flow towards equator at
subsurface level, to balance loss of water at
equator
Insolation: temperature gradient
 Insolation: Salinity gradient
Salinity increases density of water
Denser water sinks at depth
Less saline water move towards high saline
water on the surface
High saline water move towards less saline
water at sub-surface
Equator – rainfall –less saline water
Poles – iceberg – high saline water
 Factors modifying the ocean currents
Factor deflect the path of the currents:
Coastlines modify the path of the currents
coriolis force deflect the path
 Coriolis effect
• Due to Earth’s
rotation W->E
• Deflective force-
deflect the
direction of
currents
• Clockwise – N
• Anti-clockwise -S
 oceano
Q. Consider the following factors:
1. Rotation of the earth
UPSC
2. Air pressure and wind
3. Density of ocean water
4. Revolution of the earth Prelims
Which of the above factors influence 2012
ocean currents?
 oceano
a) 1 and 2
b) 1,2,3 UPSC
c) 1 and 4
d) 2,3,4
Prelims
2012
Ans. B)
Rotation of the earth -> coriolis force
Air pressure and wind -> planetary winds
Density of water -> salinity
 oceano
Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Ocean currents are slow-surface
movement of water in ocean UPSC
2. Ocean current assist in maintaining
the earth’s heat balance Prelims
3. Ocean currents are set in motion 2002
primarily by prevailing winds
 oceano
4. Tropical currents are affected by the
configuration of the ocean
Which of the statements are correct? UPSC
a) 1 and 2
b) 2,3 and 4 Prelims
c) 1,3 and 4 2002
d) 1,2,3 and 4
Ans. B)
Ocean currents of the world
North Atlantic Ocean Currents
New found land
• Meeting of gulf stream
and Labrador current
at new found land
• fishing ground = grand
banks
• Foggy area –
dangerous for shipping
North Atlantic drift

• warming effects to
Western Europe
• ports of Norway
Narvik, Hammerfest
operating in winter- at
same latitude ports in
Russia freeze during
winter
Canary current
cold current
Passes near canary
islands
desiccating effect to
Sahara desert
Sargasso sea
• Gyre of north equatorial
current, gulf stream and
canary current
• Water confined –calm
and motionless
• HP zone – high salinity
• ‘Sargassum’- sea weed
–obstruct navigation
• Devoid of nutrients –
poor marine life
South Atlantic Ocean Currents
Bahia Blanca

• Meeting of warm
Brazilian and cold
Falkland current
• Important fishing
ground
Benguela current

• Cold current
• Desiccating effect to
Namib desert
North Pacific Ocean Currents
Desiccating effect of cold current
• cold Californian current
• Chilling effect on western
coast of N. America
• Drying effect to Mojave
desert, Sonoran desert in
California
Meeting of cold-warm current near Japan
• Meeting of warm
Kuroshio and cold
Oyashio current near
southern Japan
• Rich fishing ground
• Foggy area
South Pacific Ocean Currents
Upwelling on Peruvian coast

• Cold Peru/Humboldt
current – desiccating
effect to Atacama dessert
• Peruvian coast –
upwelling – rich fishing
ground
North Indian Ocean Currents
Navigation in Indian Ocean
• In summer: wind and
current flow towards
India – Arabia to India
• In winter: wind + current
flow towards Arabia - sea
vessel from India to
Arabia
• Important for sea-trade,
cultural interaction
South Indian Ocean Currents
 oceano
Q. Which one the following factor is
responsible for the change in regular
direction of the ocean currents in the UPSC
Indian ocean?
a) Indian ocean is half an ocean
b) Indian ocean has monsoon drift Prelims
1997
c) Indian ocean is a land-locked ocean
d) Indian ocean has greater variation in
salinity
Ans. B)
 oceano
Q. The most important fishing ground of
the world are found in the regions
where: UPSC
a) Warm and cold atmospheric currents
meet Prelims
b) Rivers drain out large amount of 2013
fresh water into sea
c) Warm and cold oceanic currents
meet
 oceano
d) Continental shelf is inundating

UPSC
Ans. C)
1) New found land
2) Bahia Blanca Prelims
3) Japanese coast 2013
 Motion of Ocean water

●
waves
Horizontal ●
currents

●
Up-welling
Vertical ●
tides
Ekman layer
• The wind exerts stress
on the ocean surface
proportional to the
square of the wind
speed and in the
direction of the wind.
• This motion extends
to a depth of ~ 100 m
Ekman spiral
• Wind force balanced by
coriolis force and
friction
• Water defect 45 deg
under coriolis force
• Depth – wind force
reduce- deflect away
from wind direction
Ekman Transport
Ekman spiral 90 deg =
Ekman transport
• Deflect Right in N.
hemi
• Deflect Left in S.
hemi
• Due to coriolis force
Up-welling
• When Ekman transport
induce divergence at
the coast
• divergence draws water
from below to the
surface
Ekman transport in southern hemisphere
Ekman transport Peruvian coast
Up-welling
• cool and nutrient rich
water come at the
surface
• Phytoplankton
reproduce rapidly in
this condition –
zooplankton -> nekton
Up-welling regions
• Cold current
• Humboldt current =
Peruvian coast
• Gulf of Guinea, Iberian
coast
• Up-welling – rich
nutrients => fishing
Down-welling
• When Ekman
transport induce
convergence at the
coast
• convergence forces
surface water
downward
Down-welling

• Descending water
-warm water -
saline
• push down at the
bottom
 Motion of Ocean water

●
waves
Horizontal ●
currents

●
Up-welling
Vertical ●
tides
 Ocean tide

• Rise and fall of sea

water due to
gravitation forces of
sun and moon is
called tides
• Gravitational +
centrifugal forces
Ocean tides

• If moon stationary –
every place on earth
experience 2 HT and 2
LT in 24 hours
Ocean tides
• But moon also revolves
around earth in 27.5 days
• So, same location comes
under moon not exactly
after 24 hours but 24.52
min
• So, diurnal frequency of
HT and LT is 12.26 min
Tidal range
• Difference between
High tide and Low
Tide
• Depends upon:
1) Depth of ocean
water
2) Configuration of
coastline
3) Openness and
closeness of the sea
 Highest tidal range
World: Bay Fundy India: Gulf of Khambhat
 Ebb – Flood/Flow
The time between the high tide and low tide,
when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.

The time between the low tide and high tide,

when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood
Apogee and Perigee tides

• Moon’s orbit around

the earth –elliptical
• Perigee tides – higher
than apogee tides
Syzygy positions
• the sun, the moon
and the earth are in
a straight line
(Syzygy)
• occur twice a month
• Conjuction – New
moon
• opposition – full
moon
Quadrature position
sun and moon are
at right angles to
each other
(Quadrature)
The forces of the
sun and moon –
counteract
7/8 D of every
fortnight
 Spring – Neap Tide
- Spring , neap = High
tide
Spring – highest HT
Neap – Lowest HT
- there is a 7 Days
interval between the
spring tides and neap
tides.
 comparison
Spring tide Neap tide

HT higher than usual HT lower than usual

LT lower than usual LT higher than usual
Syzygy position Quadrature position
Gravitational force Gravitational force of
from both sun and sun and moon counter-
moon together act
 Question
A) During the neap tides, high tide is
lower and low tide is higher than
usual UPSC
R) The neap tide, unlike spring tide,
Prelims
occurs on new moon instead of full
moon. 2001

Ans. A true, R is incorrect

Tidal currents
• When the tide is
channelled between
islands or into bays and
estuaries
• Coastward = flood
current
• Seaward = ebb current
• Reversing tidal currents
great velocity
Tidal bores
• when seawater enters into
mouths of low lying
rivers during HT
• Narrow opening – gentle
gradient of river basin
• Obstructed by river water
– so steep wall of tidal
bore
 Question
Q. Which of the following statement is
NOT correct?
a) Gulf with narrow fronts and wider UPSC
rears experience high tide
Prelims
b) Tidal currents take place when a gulf
2004
is connected with open sea by
narrow channel
c) Tidal bore occurs when a tide enters
the narrow shallow estuary of river
Estuary
If a mouth of a river is
low-lying and
submerged under sea-
water
River deposit create
long-narrow delta =
estuary deltas
Ex. Deltas of Tapi,
Narmada
 Question
d) The tidal nature of the mouth of river
Hooghly is of the crucial importance to
Kolkata port UPSC
Prelims
Ans. D)
2004
Tidal bores at Hooghly are constraints
for shipping at port
- Rushing current imbalance the docking
ships
Hooghly river

Hooghly -Distributary of
Ganga
• Kolkata on left bank of
Hooghly
• Tidal bores in Kolkata
port
 Importance of Tide
Tidal height important for Harbours with
shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which prevent
ships and boats from entering into the
harbour.
 Tides are also helpful in desilting the
sediments and in removing polluted water
from river estuaries.
Tidal energy to generate electrical power
 Question
Q. Consider the following statements:
1) Tides are great help in navigation
and fishing UPSC
2) High tide enable big ships to enter or
leave the harbour safely Prelims
3) Tide prevents siltation of harbor 2000
4) Kandla and diamond harbor are tidal
ports
 Question
a) 1 and 4
b) 2,3 and 4
c) 1,2 and 3 UPSC
d) 1,2,3 and 4
Prelims
Statement 1 is wrong. 2000

Tide not helpful in navigation

Ans. B)
 Tidal ports
Kandla port Diamond harbour
 Ports
Tidal ports Non-tidal ports

Feed by sea water  Feed by rivers

during high tide  Relatively in-land
Located on coast  Ex. Kolkata port
Ex. Kandla
 12 major ports of India
port facts

Kandla First port developed after independence

JNPT To decongest Mumbai port

Murmagao, KN Known for iron ore export

New Manglore port Export iron ore from Kudremukh mine in KN

Kochi At the entrance of a lagoon

Tuticorin port Also Handles cargo of Shri Lanka and Maldives

Chennai Oldest artificial port

vishakhapatnam Deepest landlocked port, export iron ore

Kolkata port Riverine port

Haldia To decongest Kolkata port

Paradip port, Odisha Initially to export iron ore

Motion of ocean water
Horizontal – wave, current
Vertical – tide
Tidal energy
• Power is harnessed taking
advantage of difference
of level between HT and
LT
• A dam is constructed to
clock receding water
during LT
• Water is released from
dam – turbine - electricity
Tidal energy in world
• La Rance, France
• Scotland, UK
• potential of 8000MW in
India
• Gulf of Cambay, gulf of
Kutch, Sundarban (WB)
• 50 MW plant in gulf of
Kutch 2012
Tidal stream energy
• Turbines are placed on
ocean floor
• Turbine are run by fast
moving ocean currents
• Fastest ocean currents:
gulf stream off East USA
 Motion of Ocean water

●
waves
Horizontal ●
currents

●
tides
Vertical ●
Up-welling
Motion of ocean water
Horizontal – wave, current
Vertical – tide, upwelling –down welling
Tidal energy