CHAPTER 3 :

PERIODIC TABLE

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

3.2 PERIODICITY

1
 3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

At the end of this topic students should be able to:

(a) Describe period, group and block (s, p, d, f).
(b) Deduce the position of elements in the periodic
table from its electronic configuration.

2
Classification of the Elements

3
 3.1(a): Period, group and block

Periodic Table:
• A table that arrange all the known elements in
order of increasing proton number.

• A chart in which elements having similar

chemical & physical properties are grouped
together.
a) A vertical column - group.
b) A horizontal row - period.

4
Group
•18 vertical columns
•Elements in the same group have
- same number of valence electron
- similar chemical properties.

Example:
Oxygen & sulfur are both found in group 16, which
means that both of them have 6 valence electrons .

5
For element in block s and d,
Group number = number of valence
electron

For element in block p,

Group number = number of valence
electron + 10

6
 Main groups in periodic table:

Group 1 : alkali metals (except H)

Group 2 : alkaline earth metals
Group 3 – 12 : transition metals
Group 16 : chalcogens
Group 17 : halogens
Group 18 : inert/noble/rare gases

Group 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 & 18 known as

representative groups.

7
Period
•7 horizontal rows

Period number = principal quantum number, n, of

the electrons in valence shell

8
Example: 1
a) H & He are in Period 1 because their principal
quantum number of the valence electron shell is 1.

H : 1s1
He: 1s2

b) Sodium and chlorine are in row 3 or Period 3

because their principal quantum number of the
valence electron shell is 3.

Na : 1s22s22p63s1
Cl : 1s22s22p63s23p5 9
Block
•4 main blocks according to the valence/outermost
ground state electron configuration.

•These main blocks are block s, p, d and f.

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i) s block
•Group 1 and 2
•Half-filled or completely filled outermost s orbital
•Valence electron only in s orbital
•Configuration of valence electron : ns1 to ns2

Example 2:
11
Na: 1s22s22p63s1
Configuration of valence electron : 3s1

Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
20

Configuration of valence electron : 4s2

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ii) p block
•Groups 13 to 18 (except He)

•Configuration of valence electrons : ns2np1 to ns2np6

Example 3:
13Al: 1s 2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p1

Configuration of valence electron : 3s23p1

52Te: 1s 2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p6
3d10
4s2
4p6
4d10
5s2
5p4

Configuration of valence electron : 5s25p4

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iii) d block
•Transition elements
•Groups 3 to 12
•Configuration of valence electron :
(n-1)d1ns2 to (n-1)d10ns2

Example 4:
23V : 1s 2
2s 2
2p 6
3s 2
3p6
3d 3
4s2

= [Ar] 3d34s2

where [Ar] = 18 electrons

Configuration of valence electron : 3d34s2

13
iv) f block
• Elements in the series of lanthanides (La to Lu) and
actinides (Ac to Lr)
•Valence electron in the subshell of 4f and 5f.

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15
 ns2np6
ns1 Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements

ns2np1

ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4
f
5
f 16
 Metal, nonmetal and metalloids

• All the elements on the left side and in the middle of

the periodic table (except for hydrogen) are metallic
elements, or metals.

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• The metals are separated from the non-metallic
elements by the diagonal step-like line that runs
from boron (B) to Astatine (At) as shown:

• Further across the period towards the right,

elements gradually lose their metallic character and
gained nonmetallic features. 18
• Many of the elements that lie along the line that separates
metals from non-metals, such as antimony (Sb) have
properties that fall between those of metals and non-
metals.
• These elements are often referred to as metalloids.(semi-
metals)

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3.1(b): Position of elements in Periodic Table

Example 5:
Classify the following elements into its appropriate
group, period and block.

P: 1s22s22p63s23p6
Q: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
R: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
S: 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2
T: 1s22s22p63s23p4

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Element Group Period Block

18 P 18 3 Inert gas/ block p

Q
35 17 4 Halogen / Block p

20 R 2 4 Block s

S Transition element/
23 5 4
block d

16 T 16 3 Block p

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 Conclusion

• Periods, groups & blocks:- s, p, d, f

• Position of metals, metalloids and non-metals
• Position of elements in groups 1 ,2, 13, 14, 15,
16, 17 or 18 based on electron configuration

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 3.2 PERIODICITY
At the end of this topic students should be able to:
a) Explain the variation in atomic radii
i. across periods 2 and 3
ii. across the first row of transition elements.
iii. down a group.

b) Analyse the variation in atomic radii

i. across a period
ii. across the first row of transition element
iii. down a group
c) Compare the atomic radius of an element and its
corresponding ionic radius 23
d) Define the term isoelectronic.

e) Explain the radius of isoelectronic species.

f) Analyse the variation in the ionic radii across period

24
g) Define the first and second ionisation energies.

h) Explain the increase in the successive ionisation

energies of an element.

i) Explain the variations in the first ionisation energy

i) across periods 2 and 3
ii) down the groups 1 and 2.

j) Deduce the electronic configuration of an element

and its position in the periodic table based on
successive ionisation energy data.

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k) Define electronegativity.

l) Explain the variation in electronegativity of elements:

i) across a periods 2 and 3
ii) down a group.

m) Explain the acid-base character of oxides of

elements in Period 3

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 3.2 (a) Variation in atomic radii
• The size /radius of atom is difficult to be defined
exactly because the electron cloud has no clear
boundary.

• The distance between the 2 nuclei in a molecule –

atomic radii
Radius, r =
a
Size ∝ volume
V = 4/3 πr3 ⇒ V ∝ r
• Down the group, atomic radii increases
• Across the period, atomic radii decreases 27
Atomic Size

• Atom are very small.

• Their size is expressed
• in angstroms Å = 100 picometers

• Atomic radius is taken as half of the distance between the nuclei of

two adjacent identical atoms

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Factors that affect the atomic radii

i) Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) felt by the valence

electrons.

ii) Value of the principal quantum number,n of the

valence electrons

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i) Effective nuclear charge
• The nuclear charge that actually ‘felt’ by an electron
because of the nucleus attraction.
• Value of effective nuclear charge
Zeff = z – s
Where,
z = no. of proton
s = no. of electrons filled at the inner orbital

• Across the period, the no of proton increase, the

effective nuclear charge increases and the nucleus
attraction towards valence electrons is stronger.
Therefore, the sizes of atom decrease.
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 Example:

Atoms Electronic configuration Zeff = z-s

12Mg 1s22s22p63s2 12-10=2

13Al
1s22s22p63s23p1 13-10=3

14Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 14-10=4

15P 1s22s22p63s23p3 15-10=5

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(ii) Value of the principal quantum number of
the valence electrons

• Going down a group, the value of principal quantum

number, n increase, the screening effect increase and
the nucleus attraction towards valence electrons
becomes weaker. Therefore, the sizes of atom
increase.

***Screening effect:
- The electrons in inner shells shield the electrons in
outer shells from the nuclear charge.

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 Cs
Atomic radius (pm)
K Rb

Li Na I
Br
Cl
F
No. of proton

This graph shows that :

• Going down the group, sizes of atoms increase while
atomic radius decreases when across a period and up a
group in the periodic table.

• The greater the force of attraction, the smaller the

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radius.
13 14 15 16 17 18

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 3.2 (d) Isoelectronic

Definition:
•Isoelectronic series are groups of atoms and ions
which have the same electronic configuration (same
number of electrons).

•Within isoelectronic series,

– the more positive the charge, the smaller the
species
– the more negative the charge, the larger the
species.
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3.2 (e) Compare the radius of isoelectronic species

More –ve (larger) More +ve (smaller)

P3- >S2- > Cl- > Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ > Si4+

P3-
S2-
Na+ Cl-
Mg2+
Ionic radii (nm)

Al3+
Si4+

36
No. of proton
• Across the period, sizes of cations and anions decrease due
to the increase of effective nuclear charge.

• Ionic radii of Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+ > Si4+.

• They are isoelectronic (10 e-) : 1s22s22p6.

•Effective nuclear charge increase, ionic radii decrease.

• Ionic radii of Cl- < S2- < P3-.

• They are isoelectronic (18 e-) : 1s22s22p63s23p6.

• Effective nuclear charge decrease, ionic radii increase.

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Example : 3 e i)
Ion No. of e- e- configuration Proton no. Zeff= z-s

N3- 10 1s22s22p6 7 7–2=5

O2- 10 1s22s22p6 8 8–2=6
F- 10 1s22s22p6 9 9–2=7
Ne 10 1s22s22p6 10 10 – 2 = 8
Na+ 10 1s22s22p6 11 11 – 2 = 9
Mg2+ 10 1s22s22p6 12 12 – 2 = 10
Al3+ 10 1s22s22p6 13 13 – 2 = 11
Si4+ 10 1s22s22p6 14 14 – 2 = 12
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3.2 (f) Variation in ionic radii

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40
Cations
• When electrons are removed from the valence shell,
the electron-electron repulsions decrease and the
remaining electrons are pulled closer together around
the nucleus.
• Therefore, cations are smaller than the atoms from
which they are formed.

Anions
• When electrons are added to an atom, the mutual
repulsions between them increase. The electrons are
pushed apart and occupy a larger volume.
• Therefore, anions are larger than the atoms from which
they are formed. 41
• Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is
formed.

• Anion is always larger than atom from which it is

formed.
42
43
 Exercise 1

Arrange the following sets of atoms in order of increasing

size:
i) Sr, Se, Ne :
ii) Fe, P, O :

Arrange the following sets of ions in order of increasing

size:
iii) Na+, Rb+, Li+ :
iv) Cl-, F-, I- :
i) Ne(10) < Se(34) < Sr(38) ii) O(8) < P(15) < Fe(26)
iii)Li+(3) < Na+(11) < Rb+(37) iv) F-(9) < Cl-(17) < I-(53) 44
 Conclusion
Across the period
1) No of proton increase
2) Effective nuclear charge
increase
3) Nucleus attraction towards
valence electron is
stronger
4) Atomic size/ atomic radii is
smaller.
5) Ionic radius is smaller.
Down the group
1) Value of principle quantum no
increase
2) Screening effect / shielding
effect is greater.
3) Nucleus attraction towards
valence electron is weaker.
4) Atomic size/ atomic radii is
bigger.
5) Ionic radius is bigger.

Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is formed.

Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed. 45

3.2 (g) Definition Ionisation Energies

Definition:
•First ionisation energy (IE1) is the energy required for
the removal of one mole electron from one mole of
neutral, gaseous atom:
X (g) X+(g) + e- ∆H = first ionisation energy

•Second ionisation energy (IE2) is the energy required to

remove one mole electron from one mole positive ion
in the gaseous state.
X+(g) X2+(g) + e- ∆H = second ionisation energy
46
Factors that affect the value of ionisation energy:

i) Atomic radius/size of atom

ii) Effective nuclear charge, Zeff
iii) Screening effect

47
(i) Atomic radius/size of atom

• The valence electrons of an atom with a larger radius

experience a less attraction towards nucleus, hence
possess a low ionisation energy.

• The larger the atomic size, the nucleus attraction

towards valence electron is weaker. It is easier to
remove an electron. Therefore, ionisation energy
decrease
• The first ionisation energy increases across a period
and up the group
IE across period 3 : Na < Al < Mg < Si
IE down group 1 : Li > Na > K 48
 (ii) Effective Nuclear Charge

• The higher the nuclear charge, the stronger the

nucleus attraction towards valence electrons. This
causes the ionisation energy to increase.

• The higher the effective nuclear charge, the nucleus

attraction towards valence electron becomes stronger.
It is harder to remove an electron. Therefore,
ionisation energy increase.

49
(iii) Screening Effect
• The screening effect (shielding effect) of the electrons
of the inner orbitals causes the outer electrons to be
less attracted to the nucleus and thus, decrease the
magnitude of ionisation energy.

• Screening effect causes the nucleus attraction

towards valence electrons becomes weaker.
Therefore, it is easier to remove an electron causes
the ionisation energy to decrease.

50
3.2 (h) and (i) Variations in First Ionisation
Energies

Increasing First Ionisation Energy

Increasing First Ionisation Energy

51
a) Ionisation Energy Across a Period
• There is a gradual overall increase in ionisation
energy as we move across a period, although the
variation is irregular.

• The reason for the overall trend is the increase in

effective nuclear charge felt by the electrons.

• This draws the electrons closer to the nucleus and

causes the valence electrons to be held more tightly,
which making it more difficult to remove them.

52
Example 3.2 h: i)
Variation of first ionisation energy (kJ/mol) across period 2 :

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

Elements Li Be B C N O F Ne

IE 520 900 801 1086 1402 1314 1681 2081

(kJ mol-1)

In general, ionisation energy increases across a period.

53
Period 2

Period 3

54
55
Anomalous cases
(i) The irregularity between groups 2 and 13:

• Ionization energy of Be (Group 2) is higher than B

(Group 13)

• Electronic configuration of
Be : 1s22s2 (completely filled s orbital)
B : 1s22s22p1 (partially filled p orbital)

56
• Completely filled orbital is more stable than partially
filled orbital

• More energy is needed to remove the electron.

• Therefore ionisation energy of Be is higher.

57
 (ii) The irregularity between groups 15 and 16:

• Ionisation energy of N (Group 15) is higher than O

(Group 16)

• Electronic configuration:
N : 1s22s22p3 ( half filled p orbital)
O : 1s22s22p4 ( partially filled p orbital)

58
• Half filled p orbital is more stable than partially filled
p orbital

• More energy is needed to remove the electron.

• Therefore ionisation energy of N is higher.

59
b) Ionisation Energy Down Within Group

• Going down the group, the atomic size increases and

screening effect increases.

• The outer electrons are further from the nucleus and

held less tightly by the nucleus.

• So, less energy is needed to remove their first electron.

Therefore ionisation energy decreases when going
down the group.

60
 Exercise 2
• Arrange the following elements in order of increasing
first ionisation energy:

19 K , 37Rb , 20Ca
G1 G2
P4 K Ca
Rb

Answer: Rb< K< Ca IE : Rb < K < Ca

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 Conclusion
Across the period
1)Number of proton increase
2)Effective nuclear charge
increase
3)Nucleus attraction towards
valence electron is stronger.
4)Atomic size/ atomic radii is
smaller.
5) Harder to remove an
electron
6)More energy is required
7)Ionisation energy is higher
Down the group
1)Value of principle quantum
number increase
2) Screening effect / shielding
effect is greater.
3)Nucleus attraction towards
valence electron is weaker.
4)Atomic size/ atomic radii is
bigger.
5) Easier to remove an
electron
6)Less energy is required.
7)Ionisation energy is lower
62
3.2 (j) Electronic configuration of an element and its
position in the Periodic Table based on successive
ionisation energy data
• Generally, successive ionisation energy increase
because electron is being pulled away from an
increasingly more positive ion, and that requires more
work.
• A large increase in successive ionisation energy
occurs between the removal of the last valence
electron and the removal of the first inner shell
electron.

• The electron configuration of the valence electron for

an element can be determined. 63
 IE1
12X X
X + IE2 12
2+
IE3 12X 3+
12

Zeff = 10
Zeff = 2 Zeff = 2 Zeff = 10

IE4 IE5 IE6 IE7

12X 4+
12X 5+
12 X 6+
12X 7+

Zeff = 10 Zeff = 10
Zeff = 10 Zeff = 10

IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4 < IE5 < IE6 < IE7 64
Ionisation energies elements (kJ mol-1)

65
 Example 3.2 i: i
Based on the successive ionisation energy data given,
determine the group of X in Periodic Table.

IE 1 2 3 4
(kJ mol-1) 899 1757 14845 21000

66
Method 1:-
By determining the ionisation energy ratios:

IE2 = 1757 = 1.95

IE1 899

IE3 = 14845 = 8.45

IE2 1757

IE4 = 21000 = 1.41

IE3 14845
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• The third electron is removed from an inner shell that
is 1s, hence it requires a higher IE3 (8.45 times) than
IE2.
• The first and second electron are removed from the
same energy subshell (2s).

• Since IE3 / IE2 have the highest ratio, 2 valence

electrons are present.

• Electron configuration: ns2

• This element is Be: Group 2

68
Method 2:-
By determining the differences in ionisation energy

IE 1 2 3 4
(kJ mol-1) 899 1757 14845 21000

IE2-IE1= 858 kJ mol-1

IE3-IE2= 13088 kJ mol-1

IE4-IE3= 6155 kJ mol-1

69
• The first and second electron are removed from the
same energy subshell (2s).

• The third electron is removed from an inner shell that is

1s, hence it requires a higher IE3 than IE2 (a difference of
13088 kJmol-1).

• Since IE3 - IE2 have the highest difference, 2 valence

electrons are present.

• Electron configuration: ns2

• This element is Be: Group 2 70

Example 3.2 i: ii
Five successive ionisation energies (kJ mol-1) for atom M
is shown below:
IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5
800 1580 3230 4360 16000

Determine
i) electron configuration of the valence electron for M
ii) group number of M in the periodic table

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 Example 3.2 i:iii
• The graph of successive ionisation energy vs number of
electron removed for an element X, is shown below:
Ionisation energy

No. of electrons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 removed

From the graph,

i) Predict in which group and period X belongs
to in the Periodic Table.
ii)Write the electronic configuration for X. 72
Exercise 3
• Sketch a graph of ionisation energy vs number of
electron removed for the successive ionisation
energy of 19M.

73
 Conclusion
• Successive ionisation energy data in form of
– table
– graph

• Using successive ionisation energy data in method

i) ionisation energy ratios

ii) Differences in ionisation energy

to determine electron configuration

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3.2 (k) & (l) Periodic trends in the electronegativity
Definition:
• Electronegativity is the relative tendency of an atom
to attract electrons to itself when chemically
combined with another atom.

• In HCl, for example, chlorine is more electronegative

than hydrogen. The electron pair of the covalent
bond spends more of its time around the more
electronegative atom.
• Electronegativity increases up a group, and across a
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period.
• Going down a group, the screening effect increases
and nucleus attraction towards electrons decrease
causes the atomic size increase. Therefore,
electronegativity decreases.

I < Br < Cl < F

• Going across a period from left to right, the effective

nuclear charge increases and nucleus attraction
towards electrons increase causes the atomic size
decrease. Therefore, electronegativity increases.

Na < Mg < S < Cl 76

77
Exercise 4:
1. Indicate which element of each pair has the lower
electronegativity.

a) Na or K
b) Mg or Be
c) Li or O
d) Cl or Br
e) Ca or Br

78
2. Arrange the elements in order of their increasing
electronegativity.

a) Na, Li, Cs, K

b) B, F, Li, C

c) Cl, S, Si, Na

79
 Conclusion
Across the period
1)Number of proton increase
2)Effective nuclear charge
increase
3)Nucleus attraction towards
valence electron is stronger.
4)Atomic size/ atomic radii is
smaller.
5)More energy is needed.
6) Ionisation energy is higher
7) Electronegativity increase.
Down the group
1)Value of principle quantum
number increase
2) Screening effect / shielding
effect is greater.
3)Nucleus attraction towards
valence electron is weaker.
4)Atomic size/ atomic radii is
bigger.
5)Less energy is given off.
6) Ionisation energy is lower
7)Electronegativity decrease.
80
3.2 (m) Acid-base behavior of oxides of Period 3
For Period 3:
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

• When react with oxygen :

(a) Na & Mg form basic oxide

(b) Al form amphoteric (both acidic and

basic) oxide.

(c) Si, P, S & Cl form acidic oxide

81
• Na reacts with oxygen to form a basic oxide.
4Na (s) + O2 (g)→2Na2O (s)
• The oxide will produce base solution when react
with water.
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)

• Mg burns in oxygen to form a basic oxide, MgO.

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) →2MgO (s)
MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq) →MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
base acid
82
• Al forms amphoteric oxide, can react either
with an acid or a base.
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3 H2O (l)
base acid

Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2NaAl(OH)4 (aq)

acid base sodium aluminate

83
Si, P, S & Cl burn in oxygen to form acidic oxide.

Si :
Si (s) + O2 (g) → SiO2 (s)
SiO2 (s) + NaOH (aq) → Na2SiO3(aq)+H2O (l)
acid base

84
P:
P4 (s) + 3O2 (g) → P4O6 (s)

P4O6 (s) + 6H2O (l) → 4H3PO3 (aq)

phosphorus acid

85
S:
S (s) + O2 (g) →SO2 (g)
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)
sulfurous acid

Cl :
Cl2O7 (g) + H2O (l) → 2HClO4 (aq)
hypochloric acid

86
 Conclusion
Across the period
1) Number of proton increase
2) Effective nuclear charge increase
3) Nucleus attraction towards valence
electron is stronger.
4) Atomic size/ atomic radii is smaller.
5) Ionic radii is smaller.
6) Harder to remove an electron
7) More energy is given off.
8) Ionisation energy is higher
9) Electronegativity increase.
10) Metallic character decrease.
11) Melting and boiling point decrease
Down the group
1)Value of principle quantum no increase
2) Screening effect / shielding effect
greater.
3)Nucleus attraction towards valence
electron is stronger.
4) Atomic size/ atomic radii is bigger.
5) Ionic radii is bigger.
6) Easier to remove an electron
7) Less energy is given off.
8) Ionisation energy is lower
9) Electronegativity decrease.
10) Metallic character increase.
11) Melting and boiling point increase

*** Melting point and boiling point depend on the type of intermolecular
force involved.

(Intermolecular force = metallic bond or covalent bond or Van der

87
Waals forces)
END OF CHAPTER 3

88