CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Biological Energy
Chemical Pathways
• Cells do not “burn” glucose but instead release energy from the
molecules gradually.
• Body Temperature?
• The process begins with a pathway called glycolysis.
• When oxygen is present, there are two further pathways that release LOTS of
energy.
• When oxygen is not present, glycolysis is followed by different pathways.
• Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy by breaking
down food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
• 1) Glycolysis
• 2) Kreb’s cycle
• 3) electron transport chain (ETC)
The equation for Cell Respiration:
6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Look familiar? What is the relationship between the equation for photosynthesis and the
above equation?
Chemical Pathways
• GLYCOLYSIS
• One molecule of glucose is broken in half to produce two molecules of pyruvic
acid (a 3-carbon compound)
• Occurs in the cytoplasm or cytosol of a cell
• 2 ATP molecules are used to get this pathway started
• At the end of glycolysis, 4 ATP molecules are produced so a net gain of 2 ATP for
the cell
• One glycolysis reaction removes 4 high-energy electrons and passes them to a
carrier called nicotinamide adenine diculeotide, NAD+.
• NAD+ accepts electrons and becomes NADH and transfers energetic electrons
to other molecules from glucose.
• Process is so fast that thousands of ATP can be produced in a few milliseconds.
• Does not require oxygen.
FYI
• Phosphorylation of sugars is often the first stage of their
catabolism. It allows cells to accumulate sugars because the
phosphate group prevents the molecules from diffusing back
across their transporter. Phosphorylation of glucose is a key
reaction in sugar metabolism because many sugars are first
converted to glucose before they are metabolized further.
Chemical Pathways
• FERMENTATION
• Follows glycolysis when oxygen is not present.
• Produces ATP.
• Cells convert NADH to NAD+ by passing high-energy electrons back to pyruvic
acid.
• Is anaerobic.
• ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
• Yeasts and some other types of microorganisms form ethyl alcohol and CO 2 as wastes.

Pyruvic acid + NADH  alcohol + CO2 + NAD+

• LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
• Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
• Regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can continue

Pyruvic acid + NADH  lactic acid + NAD+

• BOTH OF THESE PROCESSES BEGIN WITH GLUCOSE

The Kreb’s Cycle and Electron Transport
• These pathways require oxygen – aerobic.
• O2 acts as an electron acceptor.
• At the end of glycolysis, 90% of energy in glucose is still unused!
• Where is it? – locked in high-energy electrons of pyruvic acid.
• Kreb’s & ET extract this unused energy through a series of several steps involving
enzymes.
• KREBS CYCLE
• The second stage of aerobic cell respiration
• AKA citric acid cycle & occurs in mitochondrial matrix
• Pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting
reactions
• 1) pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters mitochondrion
• 2) one carbon dioxide comes off of pyruvic acid and forms a 2-carbon compound acetyl-CoA
(acetyl coenzyme A)
• 3) acetyl joins a 4-carbon molecule to produce a 6-carbon compound called citric acid
• 4) citric acid breaks down into a 4-carbon compound and releases 2 molecules of CO 2 (the
source of CO2 on your breath!)
• 5) the cycle begins again with the same 4-carbon compound
• 6) ADP  ATP ; NAD+  NADH ; FAD  FADH2
The Kreb’s Cycle and Electron Transport
• The glycolysis pathway requires 10 different enzymes to take the 6-
carbon glucose molecule to 2 3-carbon pyruvate molecules.
• The Kreb’s Cycle (or citric acid cycle) requires 9 different enzymes to
recycle 4-carbon molecule and extract high energy electrons.
• So now we understand the importance of proteins in living systems.
• PRODUCTS OF KREB’S CYCLE:
• 4 NADH molecules  to ETC
• 1 FADH2 molecule  to ETC
• 1 ATP molecule  to ETC
• 3 CO2 molecules  to lungs for exhalation
• REACTANTS OF KREB’S CYCLE:
• Pruvic acid
• NAD+
• Coenzyme A
• ADP
• FAD
The Kreb’s Cycle and Electron Transport
• ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC)
• Occurs in mitochondrial inner membrane or cristae (inner membrane folds)
• NADH & FADH2 from Kreb’s carry high-energy electrons to the ETC.
• These electrons are used to convert ADP to ATP with ATP synthase.
• 1) ETC made of carrier proteins located in the inner membrane of mitochondrion.
• 2) At the end of the ETC, an enzyme combines electrons from the carriers with hydrogen
ions and oxygen to form water.
• 3) Oxygen gets rid of low-energy electrons and hydrogen ions.
• 4) When 2 high-energy electrons transport down the ETC, that energy is used to transport
H+ across the membrane.
• 5) H+ builds up inside the cell along the inner membrane giving a positive charge on the
inside and a negative charge on the outside.
• 6) When H+ escapes through protein channel and ATP synthase, the protons (H+) rotate
the enzyme and from this turbine movement, ADP + Pi  ATP
• From Kreb’s and ETC, about 36 ATP molecules can be produced from 1 glucose
molecule.
• This represents ~38% of energy stored in a glucose molecule.
• What happens to the other 62%?
• Body Temperature?
The Kreb’s Cycle and Electron Transport
• ENERGY AND EXERCISE
• Quick Energy
• During fight or flight or if you need a quick burst of energy during an athletic activity,
muscle cells contain small amounts of ATP ready for a few seconds of intense activity.
• After those few seconds, muscle cells begin producing ATP through lactic acid
fermentation – ever been sore after intense work-outs?
• This is because you have built up an “oxygen debt” that can be repaid by heavy
breathing.
• Long-Term Energy
• For physical activity lasting longer than about 90 seconds, cellular respiration is the only
way to generate a continuing supply of ATP.
• Cell. Resp. generates more ATP than fermentation. This is why cross-country athletes
are always told to “pace yourself”.
• Glycogen is a carbohydrate and an energy storage polymer of glucose which is stored in
muscle and liver. Glycogen stores can last ~ 15 – 20 minutes.
• After that, the body breaks down other forms of energy such as lipids – hence, we lose
weight when we limit lipid intake and exercise regularly.
• Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration are opposite, or reverse, chemical
processes.