UNIT – 14

SENCE ORGAN
 Sense Organ
 The sense organs suspend to a special kind of stimulus. These
stimulus can be :-
 Some form of energy, physical stimulus or chemical stimulus.
 Each sensory organ has its own special function.
 For example :- The eye for seen , the ear for hearing, the
tongue for taste, the nose for smell and the skin for touch,
pain, pressure and temperature.
Sense organs are:-

This chapter deals with the following sense organs:

 The eye
 The ear
 The tongue
 The nose
 Skin
 The eye

The eye is the organ of the sight(visual perception). It closely

resembles a camera in its structure.
The organs of the eye can be divided into two parts:-
a. Eyeball and
b. Accessory organs
 A) EYEBALL
 The eyeball is lodged within the bony socket called orbital
cavity of the skull. It is spherical in shaped and has a
diameter of about 2.5cm. Between the orbital wall and
eyeball , There are several structures
i. The voluntary extra ocular muscles
ii. Fat
iii. Connective tissue and
iv. Lacrimal gland
All these structure are separated from the eyeball by a
fascia called “Bucks fascia”
 The eyeball has three coats: from outside in, they are
I. Outer coat, consisting of sclera and cornea
II. The middle or vascular coat (Also called the uveal tract)
consists of the choroid , the cilliary body and the iris
III. The inner or nervous coat is the retina
i) The outer fibrous layer(Coat)

 The sclera:- The white part of eyeball is the sclera. It is

opaque(not transmitting light) and forms the posterior
5/6 of the eyeball.
 It is composed of dense fibrous tissue which is firm and
maintain the shape of the eyeballs.
 The outer surface of the sclera is white and smooth. The
tension capsule cover it.
 The anterior part is covered by conjunctiva

through which it can be seen as the white of the eye.

 Cornea:- The anterior 1/6th part of outer layer of the
eyeball is called cornea.
 It is convex and transpermeable and allows light to enter
the eyeball.
 It is more convex than the sclera but the curvature
diminishes with age.
 It is separate from the iris by a space called the anterior
chamber of the eye(is fluid filled space between iris and
cornea).
 The junction with the sclera is called the sclero- corneal
junction or limbs.
 Lymph system:- The cornea is avascular and nourished
by lymph which circulate in the numerous corneal
space.
 Nerve supply :- It is supplied by branches of the
opthalmic nerve . Pain is the only sensation aroused
from cornea.
 ii) The middle vascular layer :-

 The choroid vascular layer:- It is the thin pigmented layer,

which separates the posterior part of the retina. It forms the
largest part of retina.
 It forms the largest part of the middle layer of the eyeball
and lines most of the sclera.
 It terminates anteriorly in the cilliary body. The choroid is
firmly attached to the retina but it can easily be stripped
from sclera.
 The choroid contains venous plexus and layer of capillaries
that are responsible for nutrition of the adjacent layer of the
retina. So this middle layer is called the vascular layer.
 The cilliary body:- The ciliary body is the continuation of the choroid
layer anteriorly. It connects the choroid with the circumference the
iris.
 This is a thickened part of the uveal tract(part of the eye that contains
the iris and cilliary body and choroid) lying just posterior to the.
corneal limbus(The corneal limbus is the border of the cornea and the
sclera)
 In cross section , it is triangular in shape. It is thick in in front and thin
behind.
The scleral surface of this body contains the ciliary muscle. The
cilliary muscle are two types
a. The circular fibers
b. The radial fibers
contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscle fibers , which are
attached to suspensory ligament so that the lens becomes convex for
near vision.
The ciliary body is supplied by parasympathetic branches of the
oculomotor nerve (3rd cranial nerves)
 Iris:- The iris is the anterior part of the uveal tract. It lies behind
the cornea and in front of the lens so it divided the anterior
segment of the eye into anterior and posterior chambers both
containing aqueous humours (clear fluid filled space in front of
the eyeball between the lens and cornea).
 It has a central circular apparatus for transmitting light called the
pupil.
 The colour of the eye depends on the pigmentation of the iris. In
person with blue eyes. The pigment is limited to the posterior
surface of the iris , where as in person with dark brown eyes the
pigment is scattered throughout the loose connective tissue of the
iris.
 The iris contains a well – developed ring of muscle called the
sphincter papillae(circular muscles) which lies near the margin
of the pupil.
 The iris is supplied by parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve.
Parasympathetic stimulation constricts the pupil and sympathetic
stimulates dilates it.
 The lens:- The lens is transparent bi- convex structure which is
placed between the anterior and posterior segment of the eye.
 The posterior surface of the lens is more convex than the anterior
surface of the lens.
 The lens is enclosed is a transparent structure less elastic capsule.

It is suspended by the suspensory ligaments or the zonule of

zinn(connecting the cilliary body and lens of the eye). The lens
focus the rays, which pass through the lens, on the retina. It is
also avascular(without blood vessels).
iii) The inner or nervous layer

 The retina :-The retina is the inner most layer of the eye.
 It is extremely delicate structure and is well adapted for
stimulation by light rays.
 It is composed of several layer of nerve cell bodies and their
axons, lying on a pigmented layer of epithelial cells which
outer surface attach it to the choroid while the inner surface is
in contact with the vitrous body.
 It is 1.5mm in diameter.
 The retina lines about 3/4th of the eyeball, being thickest at the
back and thinner in the anterior part, ending up just behind the
ciliary body.
 In the posterior portion of the interior of the eye, called optic
fundus, there is a circular depressed, white to pink area in the
retina known as the optic disc or optic papilla.
The light sensitive layer consist of sensory receptors cells,
rods and cones, which contain photosensitive pigments that
converts light rays into nerve impulses.
The rods and cones are the light receptors of the eye. The rods
contain a pigment called visual purple. They can respond to
dim light.
The periphery of retina contains only rods and they comes
respond only to bright light and sensitive to colour.
The retina is composed of the following ten layers

i. The outer pigment layer

ii. Layer of rods and cones
iii. External (Outer) limiting membrane
iv. Outer nuclear layer
v. Outer plexiform layer
vi. Inner nuclear layer
vii. Inner plexiform layer
viii. Ganglion cell layer
ix. Layer of optic nerve fibers
x. Inner limiting membrane
 The inferior of the eyeball

 The lens divides the interior of the eyeball into posterior

segment (behind the lens) and anterior segment (in front of
the lens).The posterior segment is filled with the vitreous
body which consists of a jelly like a substance called
vitreous humour, in which there is mesh work of fine
collagen fibrils.
 The vitreous body consists of 99% water some salt and some
protein in addition to transmitting light, it maintenance intra
ocular pressure to support the retina against the choroid layer,
and prevent the wall of the eyeball from collapsing.
 The anterior segment is also subdivided by the iris into lens,
the anterior chamber and posterior chamber. These chamber
also filled with the aqueous humus.
 The aqueous humour is clear watery Fluid which
continuously produced by the ciliary process.
 The aqueous humours provide nutrients for the
avascular and cornea and lens.
 After passing through the pupil from the posterior
chamber into interior chamber the aqueous humour is
drained off through space at the iridocorneal angle to
vein.
 The intra ocular fluid maintains a constant intra occular
pressure. The normal pressure range from 20- 25 mm of
hg.
Visual (optic pathway)

 The visual pathway includes structures which are

concern with the reception ,Transmission and of
perception of visual impulses. The structures in visual
pathway are
 Retina
 Optic nerve
 Optic chaisma
 Optic tract
 Lateral geniculate body
 Optic radiation
 Visual area in the cortex
 The optic nerve extends from the retina. It is situated in
front of, as well as above the pituitary gland. At the optic
chaisma ,the fibers of the optic nerve coming from the
nasal side of each retina cross over to the opposite side
but the fibers of optic nerve coming from the temporal
side of each retina do not cross over. They continue
backwards on the same side.
 The optic tracts pass backward through the cerebrum and
terminate in the group of nerve cells known as the lateral
geniculate body. From here optic radiation arises and
ends in the visual area at cerebral cortex of the occipital
lobe of cerebrum.
 Accommodation
The accommodation reflex (or accommodation-convergence
reflex) is a reflex action of the eye, in response
to focusing on a near object, then looking at distant object
(and vice versa), comprising coordinated changes
in convergence ,  lens shape and pupil size
(accommodation).
It is dependent on cranial nerve II superior centers
(interneuron) and cranial nerve III . The change in the
shape of the lens is controlled by the ciliary muscles inside
the eye. Changes in contraction of the ciliary muscles alter
the focal distance of the eye, causing nearer or farther
images to come into focus on the retina; this process is
known as accommodation.
The reflex, controlled by the parasympathetic nervous
system, involves three responses; pupil accommodation,
lens accommodation, and convergence
A) Close vision:- In order to focus on near objects i.e.
within about 6 meters, accommodation is required and
the eye must make the following adjustment;
a. Constriction of the pupils:- This assists
accommodation by reducing the width of the beam of
light entering the eye so that it passes through the
central curved part of the lens.
b. Convergence(movement of eyeballs):-
c. Changing the power of the lens
B) Distance vision:- Object more than 6 meters away
from the retina without adjustment of the lens or
convergence of the eye.
 For object near to the eye, the pupil constrict so that light only
passes through the central part of the lens.
 Convergence of the eye ball helps both the eye to focus the
same object at a close distance to the age.
 The thickness of the lens changes according to the distance of
the object. This changes the power of the lens so that the
image of the object so brought closer to the eye, the thickness
of lens increases.
 These changes, known as accommodation, help the eyes to
focus on an object & make a clear image on the retina.
B) The accessory organs of the eye

 The accessory organs of the eye are also important for the
proper functioning of the eye. They are
a. The eye brow
b. The eye lids
c. The eyelashes
d. The conjunctiva
e. The Lacrimal apparatus
f. The muscles of the eyes
a. The eye brow:- The eyebrows are arched ridges over the
supra- orbital margins of the frontal bone which have
numerous small hair projection from the surface of the skin .
The hairs are coarse and are arranged in a comma shape with
the head of the comma medial. They protect the eye from
sweat , dust and foreign bodies.
b. The eye lids:- The eye lids are essentially reinforced folds of
skin which form movable curtains. They are suitable above and
below in front of the eyeball. The eyelid is made up of skin,
areolar tissue, the circular muscle(orbicularis occuli) and
levatory palpebra, the tarsal plate and a conjuctival linning.
They protect eye from the foreign bodies, bright light and injury.
They keep the cornea clean and moist. The upper eyelid is more
movable and larger than lower eyelid.
 When orbicularis oculi contracts the eye close and when
levator palpebra contracts the eye open.
 The upper and lower eye lids joined each other medially and
laterally forming the angle which are called medial and
lateral canthus of the eye. In the medial canthus, there is a
small reddish elevation, lacrimal carbuncle. Medially , there
are small opening on each eyelid , called punctum lacrimalie,
which collect the lacrimal fluid from the conjunctival sac from
where it is passed to the lacrimal sac.
c. The eyelashes;- The eye lashes are rows of hair on the
margin of upper and lower eye lid. Below the eye lashes,
these are modified sebaceous gland know as meibomian
gland. The infection of the meibomian gland is called sty.
d. The conjunctiva:- The conjunctiva is a thin mucous
membrane lining the inner aspect of the eyelids , called
palpebral conjunctiva and reflected from them on to the
eyeball called bulbar conjunctiva . The lines of reflexion
from the palperable to bulbar conjunctiva are the superior
and inferior fornices. The palpebral conjunctiva is normally
red and vary vascular so it is commonly examined in case of
suspected anemia, and bulbar in jaundice.
e. The lacrimal apparatus;- This comprises
i. The lacrimal glad
ii. The lacrimal punctum and canal canaliculi
iii. Lacrimal sac
iv. Nasolacrimal duct

 The lacrimal glad :- The lacrimal glands is small almond

shaped . It is situated in the lacrimal fossa (Superolateral part
of the orbit) and partly on the upper eyelid. The gland is
composed of epithelial cell which secretes tears which passes
to the conjunctival sacred through a dozen of ducts that
pierce the conjunctiva of the upper lid and open into the
conjunctival sacred near the superior fornix.
 Lacrimal punctum and canaliculi :- Each lacrimal canaliculi
begins at the lacrimal punctum and is 10 mm long. It has
vertical part , which is 2mm long, and a horizontal part
which is 8mm long . It opens in the lateral wall of the
lacrimal sac.
 Lacrimal sac:- It is membranous sac 12 mm long and 5mm
wide. It is situated in the lacrimal groove of lacrimal bone.
The lower end is continuous with the nasolacrimal duct.
 Nasolacrimal duct:- It is a membranous passage of 18 mm
long. It begins at the lower ends of the lacrimal sac, runs
downwards backwards and laterally and opens into the
inferior meatus of the nose.
Tear

Tearing (lacrimation, or lachrymation, ) is the secretion

of tears, which often serves to clean and lubricate the eyes in
response to an irritation of the eyes.

The tear is composed of water, salt and lysozyme, which is a

bactericidal protein.
Functions of tear:-
 Keep the eye moist helping the eyelids and eyeball to move
freely.
 Help to remove dust, foreign body and bacteria
 Act as mild antiseptics
f) The muscles of the eyes:- There are six extrinsic muscle
attached to the eyeball posteriorly. These muscles arises from
the posterior bony orbit and are attached to the fibrous coat of
the eyeball. These muscles are:-
 Superior rectus muscle
 Inferior rectus muscle
 Medial rectus muscle
 Lateral rectus muscle
 Superior oblique muscle
 Inferior oblique muscle
 All the extrinsic muscle are supplied by occular nerve except
superior oblique and lateral rectus muscle which are supplied
by trochlear and abducent respectively.
 FUNCTION:-
 The medial rectus rotates the eyeball inward
 The Superior rectus muscle rotate the eyeball outward.
 The Inferior rectus muscle rotate the eyeball upwards.
 The Lateral rectus muscle rotate the eyeball outward.
 The Superior oblique muscle rotates the eyeball downward
and outwards.
 The Inferior oblique muscle rotates the eyeball upward and
outwards.
Functions of the parts of eyes

i. Eye brows , eye lashes and eyelid protect the eye.

ii. Tear glands keep the conjunctive moist and fights infections.
iii. The cornea act as a pathway to light into the eye and also refracts it
for focusing.
iv. The sclera is continuous with cornea and protects the eyeball &
gives it shape.
v. The choroid prevents light from reflecting within the eye &
provides blood supply.
vi. Iris adjust the papillary diameter and controls the amount of light
entering the eye.
vii. Cilliary body helps in accommodation by changing the thickness of
lens.
viii. Retina has nerve carries nerves impulses of vision to the brain.
ix. The optic nerve carries nerve impulses of vision to the brain.
x. The extra ocular muscles helps in eye movement.
The mechanism of sight

 The light waves pass through structures with different

densities: the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous
body. The lens focuses the image in the retina . When the
light rays strikes the rods and cones, electrical changes
occur in them and impulses are generated. These impulses
are transported to the visual area of the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum through the visual pathway. In two areas the
impulses are interpreted . In this way we see any objects.
 The Ears
 The ear is the organ of the hearing as well as balancing.
Anatomically the ear is divided into three parts
 External ear
 Middle ear
 Inner ear
The external and middle parts are mainly concerned
with the transference of sound to the internal (inner ) part,
which contains the vestibulo- cochlear organ that is essential
for equilibrium and hearing.
 Structure and function of ear
a) The external ear:- The external ear is composed of the
oval auricle( pinna) and the external acoustic meatus
(Auditory canal)
i. The auricle :- The auricle is also known as pinna. It is the
visible shell like part of external ear which is projected
from the side of the head. The greater part of it is made
up of a single part of cartilage, which is lined by the skin.
However the lower part of the auricle is soft and consists
only of connective tissue covered by skin. This part is
called the lobule which is richy supplied by blood vessels.
 The external ear contain hair , sweat glands and
sebaceous glands. The most prominent curving outer rim
of auricle called the helix, and the inner second curved
rim called the antihelix, and opens into the ear canal. A
deep cavity which leads into the external auditory meatus
is called the concha.
 Function of the auricles:-

They collect the sound waves and concentrate and direct

them through the external acoustic meatus to the tympanic
membrane
 Blood supply:- Posterior auricular and superficial temporal
arteries.
 Nerve supply:- The upper 2/3 of auricle is supplied by auriculo
– temporal and occipital nerve and lower 1/3 part is supplied
by greature auricular nerve and greater auricular nerve.
 Lymph drainage:- Lymph passes to preauricular , post auricular
and superficial cervical lymph nodes.
b). The external acoustic meatus:- This canal extends from the
pinna to the tympanic membrane. It conduct sound waves
from pinna to the tympanic membrane. The canal is S –
shaped. The canal is about 2.5cm long of which the lateral
1/3 is cartilaginous and medial 2/3 are bony.
In infant , the external acoustic meatus is almost
entirely cartilaginous.
The meatus is lined with skin which contain modified sweat
glands called ceruminous glands. The glands secret cerumen
or wax which traps foreign material e.g Dust or insect and
prevents them from reaching the tympanic membrane.
 Blood supply:- The outer part of canal is supplied by the
superficial temporal artery and posterior auricular artery
which are branches of external carotid artery and the inner
part by the deep auricular branches of the maxillary artery .
The veins from external acoustic meatus drain into the
external tubular and maxillary veins.
 Nerve supply:- The meatus is supplied by the
auriculotemporal nerve, branch of mandibular nerve ,
auricular branches of facial nerve
 Lymph drainage:- Same as auricle
 The tympanic membrane
 The eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is a thin, cone-
shaped membrane that separates the external ear from
the middle ear in humans.
 The tympanic membrane has outer and inner surface . The
outer surface is lined by the skin and it is concave in shape .
 The inner surface provides the attaches to the handle of the
malleus. The inner surface is concave so the tympanic
membrane shows a concavity towards the meatus with a
central depression, called the umbo.
The tympanic membrane is composed of the following
three layers:-

1. The outer layer of stratified squamous epithelium

2. The middle layer of fibrous tissue
3. The inner mucous layer is lined by a low ciliated
columnar epithelium
Function

 The tympanic membrane moves in response to air

vibration that pass to it through the external acoustic
meatus.
 The vibrations are transmitted from this membrane by
the auditory ossicles through the middle ear to the
internal ear.
 Blood supply:- The outer surface is supplied by the deep
auricular branch of the maxillary artery. The inner
surface is supplied by the anterior tympanic artery and
posterior tympanic artery.
 Venous drainage:- Veins from the outer surface drain into
the external jugular vein and from the inner surface to
the transverse sinus.
 Nerve supply:- The outer surface is supplied by the
auriculotemporal nerve and auricular brances of vagus
nerve. The inner surface is supplied by the tympanic
branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve
b) The middle Ear (Tympanic cavity or tympanum)

 The middle ear is a narrow air filled space situated in the

petrous part of the temporal bone(is pyramid shaped and is
wedges in at the base of the skull between the sphenoid and
occipital bones) between the external ear and internal ear. The
cavity is lined with the mucus membrane . The cavity is like a
cube . The lateral wall of the cavity is formed by the tympanic
membrane which separates middle ear from the external auditory
canal.
 The roof or segmental wall , the floor or jugular wall and
posterior of mastoid wall are formed by the temporal bone . The
medial wall of labyrinthine wall separates the middle ear from the
internal ear.
 The anterior wall or carotid wall has two opening of the canal for
the tenser tympanic muscle and inferiorly auditory tube which
contents the middle ear cavity with the nasoplarynx(Eustachian
tube)
 The auditory tube is funnel shaped and 3.5 to 4 cm long. It
opens posterior to the nasoplarynx .
 Its posterior 1/3 is bony and 2/3 are cartilaginous.
 The Eustachian tube is short , straight and wide in
children and it thought to predispose to middle ear
infection.
 The function of the auditory tube is to equalize pressure in
the middle ear with the atmosphere pressure, Thereby
allowing free movement of the tympanic membrane.
Content of middle ear

The middle ear contains the following

1. Three small bones (Ossicles) namely the malleus, the incus
and stapes
2. Ligament of ear ossicles
3. Two muscles, the tensor tympanic and stapedius
4. Vessels supplying and draining the middle ear
5. Nerve: Chorda tympanic and tympanic plexus
 The Ear ossicles

The ossicles (also called auditory ossicles) are three bones:-

Malleus, Incus, stapes

 Malleus:- The malleus is so called because it resemble a

hammer. It is the largest and the most laterally placed
ossicles .It has the following part: A head, neck and handle.
The head is rounded and articulates with the body of the
incus. The handle of it is attached to the inner surface of the
tympanic membrane and moves with it.
 Incus:-It is so called it resembles an avil. It lies between
the malleus and stapes. It has a body and two processes, one
long and the other short.

 Stapes:- This bone is so called because it is shaped like

stirrup. It is the smallest and the most medially placed
ossicles of the ear. It has a head, a neck, two procession and
a base.
Function of Auditory Ossicles

 The vibration of tympanic membrane transports to the

malleus, incus and stapes, the stapes moves the oval
window, which then carries the vibration to the inner
ear.
 The middle ear muscles prevent damage to the inner ear
from loud noise and also decreases the sensitivity of
hearing.
 The auditory tube in the middle ear helps to maintain
balanced pressure between the middle ear and the
atmosphere.
 c) The internal Ear(Labyrinth)

 The inner ear is also called the labyrinth because of its

complicated shape.
 It is safely enclosed within the temporal bone behind the
eye orbit and contain the delicate receptors for detection
of sound and equilibrium.
 The internal ear or labyrinth lies in the petrous part of the
temporal bone . It consists of two parts:-
 The bony labyrinth
 The membranous labyrinth
i) The bony labyrinth:- the bony labyrinth is the outer most
part of the inner ear which there is the membranous
labyrinth.
The space between these two labyrinths is filled with fluid
called perilymph. The membranous labyrinth is also filled
with the fluid called endolymph.

 The bony labyrinth consists of three parts:-

a. The vestibule
b. The cochelea
c. The Semicircular canal
a. The vestibule:- This is the central part of the bony labyrinth.
It forms the medial wall of the tympanic cavity. It contains
the oval and round windows. Three semicircular canal also
opens into it.
b. The cochelea:- The bony cochlea resembles the shell of a
common snail. It has a conical central axis common as the
mediolus around which the cochlear canal makes two end
and three quarter ¾ turns. In the mediolus , there are canal
for blood vessels and nerves
c. The Semicircular canal:- These are three in number situated
in the poster superior to the vestibule. They open into the
vestibule by 5 openings and are set at right angle to each
other. The dilated at one end of each semicircular canal is
called ampulla.
 The membranous labyrinth
 The membranous labyrinth generally follows the form of the
bony labyrinth but it is much smaller. It contains a watery fluid
called endolymph. Like the bony labyrinth , the membranous
labyrinth also consists of three main parts:-
a. Two small communicating sac , the utricle and saccule in the
vestibule.
b. Three semicircular ducts in the semicircular canal
c. The cochlear duct in the cochlear.
 Blood supply:- The labyrinth is supplied by the
labyrinthine branch of the basilar artery.
 Veins drains into the superior petrous postnasal sinus or
the transverse sinus.
 Physiology of hearing

1. Sound waves travels through the medium of air

2. The waves cause the vibration of the tympanic membrane.
3. The vibration of tympanic membrane are transmitted
through the middle ear ossicle to reach the stapes.
4. The stapes now begins its “rocking” movement.
5. The perilymph of scala vestibuli is moves
6. The pressure in the perilymph changes is transmitted
through the vestibular membrane and endolymph to the
basilar membrane
7. The basilar membrane move up and down as a result, the
hair cells are pulled.
8. This causes stimulation of the nerve fiber and impulses
are generated in the nerve fibers.
9. The impulses are transported to the hearing area in the
temporal lobe by the vestibulocochlear nerve.
10. In this area, impulses are perceived as sound.
 Mechanism of balance by ear
 The semicircular canal have no auditory function although
they are closely associated with the cochlea. The three
semicircular canals provide information about the position
of the head, contributing to maintenance of posture &
balance.
 The semicircular canals are composed of an outer bony wall
& inner membranous tubes. The membranous tube contain
endolymph and are separated from the bony wall by
perilymph.
 The semicircular canals and the vestibule are concerned with
balance.
 Change of position of head causes movement in the perilymph
and endolymph, which bends the hair cells & stimulates the
sensory receptors.
 The impulses are transmitted by the vestibular nerve, which
join the cochlear nerve to form vestibulocochlear nerve.
 The vestibular branch passes first to the vestibular nucleus,
then to the cerebellum.
 At the same time , the cerebellum also receives nerve impulses
from eye and proprioceptors(sensory receptors)in the muscles
and joints.
 Impulses from these three sources are coordinated and efferent
nerve impulses pass to the cerebrum and to skeletal muscles.
 This causes awarness of body position , maintenance of
upright position and independent head movement.
The Tongue

The tongue is a highly mobile muscular organ situated on the

floor of the mouth. It is associated with the function of
taste , speech, mastication and deglutition. It consists of
three parts:-A root, body and tip.
The root its posterior part is attached to the hyoid bone. The
tip of the tongue is the anterior free end. The middle part of
tongue is the body . It has two surface: superior or dorsum
surface and inferior surface.
 The dorsum is divided into oral and pharyngeal part. The
tongue is freely movable, but it is loosely attached to the floor
of the mouth by the lingual frenulum. The superior surface of
tongue is lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
 The mucous membrane on the oral part of the tongue, owing
to the presence of numerous papillae which contain the taste
receptors located in the taste buds. These are of the following
three types:-
1. Vallate papillae:-
2. The fungiforn papillae:-
3. The filliform papillae:-
Sensation of four taste:- they are
i. Salt
ii. Sweet
iii. Sour
iv. Bitter
Mechanism of taste sensation
 The molecules of substance are attached with the molecular
receptor of the microvilli in the taste buds.
 The combination leads to some electrophysiological
changes to cause stimulation of receptor cell and then
nerves fibers, which emerge from the taste buds, are
stimulated .
 The impulses then reach the appropriate part of the brain
through the various nerves, then perceived the sense of
taste.
 Blood supply

 The tongue receives its blood supply primarily from

the lingual artery, a branch of the external carotid artery.
 The lingual veins, drain into the internal jugular vein or
common facial vein.
 Nerve supply

 Motor supply of the tongue is by efferent motor nerve

fibers from the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII),
 taste and sensation is different for the anterior and posterior
part .
 Anterior two thirds of tongue (anterior to the vallate papillae

◦ Taste: chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve (CN VII)

◦ Sensation: lingual branch of the mandibular division (V3)
of the trigeminal nerve (CN V)
 Posterior one third of tongue:

◦ Taste and sensation: glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX

 Base of tongue

◦ Taste and sensation: internal laryngeal nerve (branch of

CN X, vagus nerve)
Nose

 Structure and function of the nose – See chapter in

respiratory system.
The nose performs two functions. It is a respiratory passage. It is
also the organ of smell. The receptors for smell are placed in
the upper one third of the nasal cavity. This is lined by the
respiratory mucous which is highly vascular and warm the
inspired air
 The olfactory mucosa(located upper resion of the nasal
cavity) is thin and less vascular than respiratory mucousa
(located in the rest of the nasal cavity). It contains the
receptors called olfactory cells. Each olfactory receptor is a
neuron. Each neuron has a short , thick dendrite with an
expanded end called olfactory rods.
 From these rods , cilia projects to the surface of the mucus.
These are 10- 20 cilia per receptor neuron. The axons of the
olfactory receptors neurons pierce the cribiform plate of the
ethmoide bone and enter the olfactory bulbs. After then
olfactory tract is formed , which ends in the olfactory area of
brain.
Physiology of smell
 All odorous materials release chemical particles that are
carried by the air which is inhaled into the nose.
 The chemical particles attached to the olfactory receptors and
stimulate them , then impulses are generated.
 These impulses are carried to the olfactory area of the brain
through the olfactory tract. In this area impulses are perceived
as smell
The skin
 Skin is the general covering of the entire external surface of
the body including the external auditory meatus and outer
surface of the tympanic membrane.
 It does not covers the some visible part of the eyeball and
oral cavity. But it is continuous with the mucous membrane
at the orifices of the body.
 The color of the skin is determined by melanin, melanoid,
carotene, hemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin.
 The thickness of the skin varies from about 0.5 to 3mm.
 Functions of skin

Skin performs the following functions:

 Protection: An anatomical barrier from pathogens(bacterial
infection),mechanical injury and damage between the
internal and external environment in bodily defense, Heat,
cold, the actinic rays of the sun
 Sensation: contains a variety of nerve endings that helps to
feel to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration,
and tissue injury.
 Thermoregulation(Regulation of body temperature):-
Heat is lost through evaporation of sweat, and heat is
conserved by the fat and hair.
 Control of evaporation: the skin provides a relatively dry
and semi-impermeable barrier to reduce fluid loss.
 Storage :-  acts as a storage center for lipids and water
 Synthesis:- Vitamin D is synthesized from the action of
ultraviolet rays of the sun.(Endocrine)
 Absorption: Oily substance are freely absorbed by the skin.
 Excretion:- The excess of water , salt, urea, ammonia, uric acid
and waste products are excreted through the sweat.
 Regulation of pH :- A good amount of acid is excreted through
the sweat.
 Repurative:- The cuts and wounds of the skin are quickly
healed.
 Water resistance: The skin acts as a water resistant barrier so
essential nutrients aren't washed out of the body. The nutrients
and oils that help hydrate the skin are covered by the most outer
skin layer, the epidermis. This is helped in part by the
sebaceous glands that release sebum, an oily liquid.
 Permits movement & growth:- Growth of body/
bodily tissues and adaptation of contours of body/ skin
during movement.
 Immunity:- Destruction of microorganism & interaction
of skin with the body’s immune system.
Structure of the skin

 The skin is composed of two distinct layer:-

1. Epidermis(the superficial outer layer)
2. Dermis(The deep inner layer)
Epidermis(the superficial outer layer)

 The epidermis is composed of the outermost layers of the

skin. It forms a protective barrier over the body's surface,
responsible for keeping water in the body and
preventing pathogens from entering.
 It is avascular layer of stratified squamous  epithelium.
 The thickness varies in different part of the body. E.g it is
thickest on the palms of hand and sole of the feet.
The epidermis has following layers from above to downward
 Stratum corneum
 Stratum lucidum (only in palms and soles)
 Stratum granulosum
 Stratum spinosum
 Stratum germinativum (also called the stratum basale)
Dermis(The deep inner layer)

 Dremis is the deep , vascular layer of the skin. It is made up

of connective tissue mixed with blood vessels , lymph vessels
and nerves.
 It is also contain variable about of elastic tissue. In old age
elastic tissue atrophy and the skin become wrinkled .
 Overstretching of the skin may lead to rupture of the fibers,
followed by scar formation. These scar appear as white
strealys on the skin, E.g linea gravidarum
 The dermis consists of:-
i. Sensory nerve fibers
ii. Blood vessels and capillaries
iii. Lymph vessels and capillaries
iv. Sweat glands
v. Sebaceous glands
vi. Hair follicles
vii. Arrestors pilorum and
viii. Root of nails
i. Sensory nerve fibers:-The cutaneous nerve fibers reach the
skin after branching and rumifying in the dermal nerve
plexuses. These are sensory nerve in the skin. The sensory
nerve carry the sense of touch, pressure, pain and change of
temperature . There are various types of receptors . The senses
are carried to the sensory area of the cerebrum where
sensation is felt by the sensory pathways. There are no nerves
ending in the epidermis.
ii. Blood vessels and capillaries:- Arteries and capillaries
supply blood to sweat glands, sebaceous gland, hair folicles,
and the dermis layer of skin. The epidermis has no blood
supply but gets nutrition from the lymph and interstitial fluid.
iii. Lymph vessels and capillaries:- The skin contains many
lymphatic vessels arranged in a superficial and deep network.
The superficial network begins as a series of loops in the
papillae, from this network vessels, pass to a deep plexus
between the dermis and superficial fascia.
iv. Sweat glands:- The sweat glands are distributed all over the
skin except for the lips, glans penis and nail bed. But more on
the palm of hands, soles of feet, axilla, groins and forehead.
Each glands is a single tube, the deep part of which is coiled
into a ball.
The coil part , called the body of the gland, lies in the deeper
part of dermis. The straight part called the duct which travels
the dermis and epidermis and open on the surface of the skin.
These glands are of two types:- eccrine glands and
apocrine glands. The eccrine glands produce thin watery
secretion so the glands helps in regulation of body
temperature by evaporation of sweat and also help in
excretion the body salts. The apocrine glands are confined to
axilla. Eyelids, nipple and areola of the breast, perianal region
and external genitalia. They are larger than eccrine glands and
produce a thicker secretion having a characteristic ordour.
v. Sebaceous glands:- The sebaceous glands are distributed
all over the body except for the palm and the sole.
They are abundant in the scalp and face and all hairy parts
of the body. The axilla and groins sebaceous glands are
small and sacculated(Saclike expansion) in appearance.
The glands consists of secretory epithelium derived from
the same tissue as the hair follicles. Their ducts open into
the hair follicles with the except of lip , glans penis, inner
surface of prepuce, labia minora , nipple, areola of breast
and tarsal glands of the eyelids where ducts open on the
surface of the skin.
The glands secrete oily secretion called sebum. The
sebum keeps the hair soft and prevents them from
becoming brittle. It also lubricates skin and protects it from
moisture, desiccation and harmful sun rays. It has also
some bacterial action.
vi. Hair folicles:- Hairs are distributed all over the body ,
except for the palm, soles, dorsal surface of the distal
phalanges, glans penis, inner surface of the prepuce, the
labia minora and inner surface of the labia majora.
Each hair has an implanted part called the root, and a
projecting part called the shaft. The root is surrounded
by hair follicles . Hair follicles are found in the dermis
and subcutaneous tissue. There is a cluster of cells at the
base of the follicles that is called the bulb. The hair is
attached with minute muscles called arrector pilorum
Functions of hair
 It provides insulation against cold in scalp.
 It decreases the heat loss from the scalp.
 It protects the scalp from injury and sun’s rays.
 It protects against glare in eye brows.
 It screens against foreign particles(eye lashes)
 In the nostrils traps dust particles in the inhaled air.
 It protects opening from foreign particles.
 It also functions in sensing light touch
vii. Arrectors pilorum :- A bundle of smooth muscle fibers ,
the arrector pili muscle, lies in the dermis and is attached
to the side of the hair follicles into a more perpendicular
position, causing the hair to stand erect . At the same time
they compresses the sebaceous glands. As the muscles are
attached to the papillary layer of the dermis it cause a
dimpling of skin , the goose skin appearance. These
muscles are supplied by the sympathetic nerves, which are
responsible to the cold and fear.
viii. Root of nails:- Nails are hardened keratin plates on the
dorsal surface of the tips of fingers and toes. They
protects the tip of fingers and toes. Each nails has a root
and body . The root of the nails is the proximal hidden
part and is overlapped by the nail fold of the skin. The
body is the exposed part of the nail which is adherent to
the under lying skin. The proximal part of the body , near
the root, present a white opaque crescent called lunula.
The skin beneath the root and body of the nail is called
nail bed.
It takes about 90- 120 days for the whole nail to grow. The
rate of the growth of the nail is not same for all the
digits. Finger nails grow more rapidly than toe nails and
there is also seasonal variation in the rate growth which
is faster in summer than winter.
Functions of Nail:-
 Nail protects our fingers and toes from the trauma.
 It allows us in picking up and grasping objects.
 It also allows us to scratch various parts of the body.
Regulation of Body temperature

 Body temperature is maintained fairly constant in

humans. The temperature regulation mechanism consists
of the following.
 Heat production mechanism
 Heat lost mechanism
 Transport mechanism
 Regulatory mechanism
 Heat production mechanism:-
 Liver produces heat during metabolism
 Muscles produce heat during contraction
 Digestive organs produce heat during peristalsis and digestion

 Heat lost mechanism:-

 Skin is the major site of heat loss where it can be regulated
 Expired air , urine, feces also help the body lose some heat.
 Heat loss from skin can be increased by vasodilatation or
sweating and heat loss from skin can be decreased by
vasoconstriction or erection of hair
 Transport mechanism:-
 Heat is transported to all parts of the body by blood & body
fluids.

 Regulatory mechanism:-
 Hypothalamus is the controlling center for temperature
regulation.
Conduction:-
 This is the method of heat transfer in solid. Conduction is
diffusion of thermal energy from region to higher
temperature to region of lower temperature.
 On a microscopic level, this occurs due to passing energy
through molecular vibrations.
 When we heat a metal strip at one end, the heat travels to the
other end.
 As we heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these vibrations
make the adjacent particles vibrate , and so on the vibrations
are passed along the metal and so is heat. This process is
called conduction.
 It occurs very slightly in liquids and gases.
 It is a slow process compared to Convection and radiation
and is the slowest of the three.
Convention
 Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the movement of
matter. Convection is concerned with the thermal energy in a
moving fluid(liquid or gas).
 It is governed by two phenomena: the movement of energy
due to molecular vibrations and bulk fluid motion.
 In conduction, heat itself is moving ; in convection , hot
portion of a fluid move through the body of the fluid. The hot
fluid mixes with the cold fluid and heat is transferred more
quickly than by conduction.
 Convection is quicker than conduction but slower than
radiation.
Radiation
 Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy between two
objects through electro magnetic waves.
 Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not
require a medium.
 It involves the movement of energy form one place to
another. This process occurs in gases and in a vacuum.
 It is the quickest of the 3 methods.
 Important questions

 Explain the structure of internal ear in detail.

 Write the structure and function of skin.
 Describe the interior structure of the eyeball with diagram.
 Write the structure and function of ear.
 Write the structure and function of tongue.
 Write the structure and function of nose.

 Write short notes on:-

 Tympanic membrane
 Eye accommodation