CHAPTER ONE

Introduction : physics and measurement

A. A YUSUF

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What is the physics ?
Physics deals with the nature and properties of
matter and energy.
Physics is based on experimental observations and
quantitative measurements.
Matter is anything that has mass , volume and
occupies space
Energy is the ability of doing work

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 UNITS AND STANDARDS
Any physical quantity must have, besides its numerical
value, and standard unit. It will be meaningless to say that
the distance between Mogadishu and jowhar is 90 because
90 kilometers is different from 90 meters or 90 miles, where
kilometer, meter, and mile are standards for length known
all over the world.
Several systems of units are used in physics:
The most common system among them is the System International
(French for International System) abbreviated SI.

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 Unit systems
Two systems of units are widely used in the world, the
metric and the British systems. The metric system
measures the length in meters whereas the British
system makes use of the foot, inch, ….. The metric
system is the most widely used.
Therefore the metric system will be used in this course.
By international agreement the metric system was
formalized in 1971 into the International System of
Units (SI). There are seven basic units in the SI
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Unit systems

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 Prefix Multipliers
The International System of Units uses the prefix
multipliers shown in Table 1.2 with the standard units.

These multipliers change the value of the unit by the

powers of 10 (just like an exponent does in scientific
notation)

For example, the kilometer has the prefix kilo meaning

1000 or 103.
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Prefixes Used with SI Base Units

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Derived quantities
All physical quantities measured by physicists can be
expressed in terms of the three basic unit of length, mass,
and time.
For example speed is simply length divided by time, and
the force is actually mass multiplied by length divided by
time squared.
[Speed] = L/T = LT-1
[Force] = ML/T2 = MLT-2

where [Speed] is meant to indicate the unit of speed, and

M, L, and T represents mass, length, and time units.
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Dimensional Analysis
The word dimension in physics indicates the physical nature of
the quantity. For example the distance has a dimension of
length, and the speed has a dimension of length/time.
Unit (SI, cgs, British) Dimension Quantity
m2, cm2,ft2 L2 Area

m3, cm3, ft3 L3 Volume

m/s, cm/s, ft/s L/T Velocity

m/s2, cm/s2, ft/s2 L/T2 Acceleration

Newton (N), dyne, pound ML/T2 Force

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The dimensional analysis is used to check the formula, since the   ◦

dimension of the left hand side and the right hand side of the formula
must be the same.
Examples
Using the dimensional analysis check that this equation x = ½ at2 is
correct, where x is the distance, a is the acceleration and t is the time.
Solution

This equation is correct

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   ◦
Examples:
Show that the expression v = vo + at is dimensionally correct, where
v and vo are the velocities and a is the acceleration, and t is the time
Solution
The right hand side

The left hand side

Therefore, the expression is dimensionally correct.

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   ◦
Examples:
Show that the expression v = vo + at2 is dimensionally correct, where
v and vo are the velocities and a is the acceleration, and t is the time
Solution
The right hand side

The left hand side

Therefore, the expression is dimensionally incorrect.

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 Counting Significant Figures
First you should know that a number can have one uncertain digit
only (estimated).
The uncertain digit is counted as a significant figure
When counting significant figures, start from the first digit other
than zero and start counting to the right.
All zeros to the left of a nonzero digit are not significant.
All zeros between valued numerical digits are counted
(significant).
Zeros to the right of numeric digits are not significant, unless a
decimal point is present.
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 Counting Significant Figures
The number 00215 has three SFs
The number 02015 or 002105 has four SFs
The number 215000 has three significant figures and
should be written in the scientific notation as 2.15x105
The number 215.000 has 6 SFs, also the number
2.15000 has six SFs
The number 0.000215 has only three SFs.

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 Addition and Subtraction
Assume you are to sum the following numbers:
20.42 two digits to the right
1.322 three digits to the right
83.1 one digit to the right
Sum = 104.842
Since the result 83.1 has one digit to the right of the decimal point,
this is the highest uncertainty and the answer should include one
digit to the right of the decimal point (answer = 104.8)

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 Multiplication and Division
In multiplication and division, the number with the least number  ◦
of SFs defines the number of digits in the answer.
Example
Find the area of a rectangle which has a length of 6.221 cm and a
width of 5.2 cm.

5.2 has two SFs only while 6.221 has 4 SFs. The answer should
have only 2 SFs, that is 32 cm2 .

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 ◦
The width, length, and height of a small box are 15.5 cm, 27.3 cm, and 5.4 cm,  
respectively. Calculate the volume of the box, using the correct number of
significant figures in your answer.

A calculator used for this calculation shows 2285.01, which we must round off to
two significant figures.

Because the resulting number is 2300, it is best reported in exponential notation,

to clearly indicate two significant figures.
Answer
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 Rounding Off
In rounding off numbers, look at the leftmost digit to
be removed:
If the leftmost digit removed is less than 5, the
preceding number is left unchanged.
Thus, rounding 7.248 to two significant figures gives
7.2.
If the leftmost digit removed is greater than 5, the
preceding number is increased by 1.

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If the leftmost digit to be removed is
exactly 5, look at the digit before it,
increase it by 1 if it is odd and do not
round off it is even
Rounding 4.735 to three significant
figures gives 4.74 (since 3 is odd), and
rounding 2.45 to two significant figures
gives 2.4 since 4 is even.
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 Vector and scaler
A scalar is the physical quantity that has magnitude only, for   ◦

example, time, volume, mass, density, energy, distance,

temperature.
Measuring Mass Measuring Temperature

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A vector is the physical quantity that has both magnitude and   ◦

direction, for example, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,

area.
,,

Magnitude = 100 N
A Force
Direction = Left

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   ◦
The vector quantity will be distinguished from
the scalar quantity by typing it in boldface, like A.
In write handing the vector quantity is written with
an arrow over the symbol, such as,
The magnitude of the vector A will be denoted
by , or simply the italic type A
Equality of Two Vectors Any two vectors are
said to be equal if they have the same magnitude
and point in the same direction
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Scalars and Vectors
Examples of scalars and vectors

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Coordinate system
1. The rectangular coordinates
The rectangular coordinate system in
two dimensions is shown in Figure. This coordinate system is consist
of afixed reference
point (0,0)
which called the origin.
A set of axis with
appropriate scale and label.

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   ◦
2. The polar coordinates.
Sometimes it is more convenient to use the polar coordinate
system (r,),where r is the distance from the origin
to the point of rectangular coordinate
(x,y), and is the angle between r and
the x axis.

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   ◦
The relation between coordinates
The relation between the rectangular
coordinates (x,y) and the polar coordinates
(r,) is shown in Figure

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  ◦

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   ◦
Example :
The polar coordinates of a point are r =
5.5m and =240.
What are the Cartesian
coordinates of this point

solution
x = r cos = 5.5×cos 240 = -2.75 m
y = r sin = 5.5×sin 240 = -4.76 m

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  ◦

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Properties of Vectors
  ◦
Vector addition:
Only vectors representing the same
physical quantities can be added. To
add vector to vector as shown
in Figure , the resultant vector is

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   ◦
Vector subtraction:

The vector subtraction is evaluated as the vector subtraction

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The unit vector
A unit vector is a vector having a magnitude of unity and its used to
describe a direction in space.

i º a unit vector along the x-axis

j º a unit vector along the y-axis
k º a unit vector along the z-axis

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 Components of a vector
  ◦
Any vector lying in xy plane can be resolved into two components one in the x-direction and
the other in the y-direction

Since, Ax = Axi and Ay = Ayj we can write Equation

where and are the x-component

and the y-component of the vector A, respectively

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   ◦

The magnitude of the vector A is given by

The direction of the vector to the x-axis

In general any vector A can be resolved into three

components as

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   ◦
Example
A vector lying in the x-y plane has a magnitude A=50.0 units
and is directed at an angle of 120 to the positive x axis, as shown
in Figure. What are the rectangular components of this vector?

Solution:

Component
Component
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   ◦
We can added two vectors and by analysis

=(
The magnitude is

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   ◦
Example
Find the sum of two vectors and given by
= 3i + 4 j and = 2i - 5 j
Solution
Note that Ax=3, Ay=4, Bx=2, and By=-5
=(
=(3 + 2)i + (4 - 5) j = 5i - j

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The magnitude of vector is   ◦

The direction of with respect to x-axis is

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   ◦
Examples:
The polar coordinates of a point are r=5.5m and
=240. What are the rectangular coordinates of this
point?
solution
x=r cosq = 5.5 × cos240 = -2.75 m
y=r sinq = 5.5 × sin 240 = -4.76 m

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Example   ◦

If = 4i + 3j and = -3i +7 j, find the resultant vector =

Solution :
From the given information we have

we have
and
So we can write
=i+10j

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Example:   ◦

Two vectors given and calculate

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) the direction of
Solution
(b) A+ B= (3i - 2 j) + (-i - 4 j) = 2i - 6 j
(c) A- B= (3i - 2 j) - (-i - 4 j) = 4i + 2 j
(d) = = 6.32
(e) = = 4.47
(f) for
for ,,

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express numbers in scientific and decimal
notation.
How wide is our universe?
210,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 miles
(22 zeros)
This number is written in decimal notation.
When numbers get this large, it is easier to
write them in scientific notation.
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Scientific Notation
A number is expressed in scientific notation
when it is in the form
a x 10n
where a is between 1 and 10
and n is an integer

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Write the width of the universe in scientific
.notation
210,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 miles
Where is the decimal point now?
After the last zero.
Where would you put the decimal to make this
number be between 1 and 10?
Between the 2 and the 1
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 2.10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
How many decimal places did you move the
decimal?
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When the original number is more than 1, the
exponent is positive.
The answer in scientific notation is
2.1 x 1023
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 1) Express 0.0000000902 in
scientific notation.
Where would the decimal go to make the
number be between 1 and 10?
9.02
The decimal was moved how many places?
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When the original number is less than 1, the
exponent is negative.
9.02 x 10-8
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 Write 28750.9 in scientific notation.
1. 2.87509 x 10-5
2. 2.87509 x 10-4
3. 2.87509 x 104
4. 2.87509 x 105

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 2) Express 1.8 x 10-4 in decimal
notation.
0.00018
3) Express 4.58 x 106 in decimal notation.
4,580,000
On the graphing calculator, scientific
notation is done with the button.
4.58 x 106 is typed 4.58 6
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 3) Use a calculator to evaluate
(0.0042)(330,000).
On the calculator, the answer is
1386.
The answer in decimal notation is
1386
The answer in scientific notation is
1.386 x 103
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 7) Use a calculator to evaluate
(3,600,000,000)(23).
On the calculator, the answer is:
8.28 E +10
The answer in scientific notation is
8.28 x 10 10
The answer in decimal notation is
82,800,000,000
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 Adding and Subtracting
•  The general format for adding is as follows…
 (N x 10x) (M x 10x) = (N M) x 10x
 The important thing to remember about adding or
subtracting is that the exponents must be the same!
 If the exponents are not the same then it is necessary
to change one of the numbers so that both numbers
have the same exponential value.

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Adding With the Same Exponent
(3.45 x 103) + (6.11 x 103)
3.45 + 6.11 = 9.56

9.56 x 103

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Adding With Different Exponents
(4.12 x 106) + (3.94 x 104)
(412 x 104) + (3.94 x 104)
412 + 3.94 = 415.94
415.94 x 104

Express in proper form: 4.15 x 106

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Subtracting With the Same Exponent

(8.96 x 10 ) – (3.41 x 10 )
7 7

8.96 – 3.41 = 5.55

5.55 x 10 7

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Subtracting With Different Exponents

 (4.23 x 103) – (9.56 x 102)

 (42.3 x 102) – (9.56 x 102)
 42.3 – 9.56 = 32.74
 32.74 x 102
 Express in proper form: 3.27 x 10 3

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Multiplying Numbers in Scientific
Notation
• Multiply the decimal numbers together.
• Add the exponents to get the power of 10.

• General formula:
(N X 10x) (M X 10y) = (N) (M) X 10x+y

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Example:
Given: 3.42 X 105 • 4.67 X 109

Multiply decimals: 3.42 X 4.67 = 15.97

Add Exponents: 105 x 109=105+9=1014
Preliminary Answer: 15.97 X 1014
Now, Rewrite in Scientific Notation if needed.
Final Answer:
X 1015 1.597
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Example 2
Given: (2.93 X 10-2) • (8.3 X 10-5)

Multiply Decimals: 2.93 X 8.3 = 24.319

Add Exponents: 10-2 x 10-5=10-2+(-5)=10-7
Answer: 24.319 X 10-7
Rewrite in Scientific Notation
Final Answer: 2.43 X 10-6

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Dividing Numbers in Scientific Notation
• Divide the decimal numbers.
• Then subtract the exponents

x
• General formula: N  10 N x y
y
  10
M  10 M

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Example 1
Given: 8 • 10-3
2 • 10-2

Divide decimals: 8÷2 = 4

Subtract exponents: (-3)-(-2)= -1

Final Answer: 4 •10-1

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Example 2
Given: 3.45 X 102
1.23 X 10-5

Divide decimals: 3.45 ÷ 1.23= 2.81

Subtract exponents: 2- -5 =7

Answer: 2.81 X 107

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