Adam C.

Simon
 
Ph.D., University of Maryland,
2003
 
Research Associate
Department of Geology
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742
p: 301 405 0235
f: 301 314 9661
e-mail: asimon@geol.umd.edu
 Humble groundwater is among our
most precious natural resources.
Groundwater
The main points in this lecture are
the behavior of water under the
Earth’s surface, and how we deal
with its perturbation by natural and
unnatural means.
Is groundwater important? According to
U.S. estimates, groundwater provides:
• 34% of agricultural use (mostly for irrigation)
• 40% of the public water supply withdrawals
• 53% of all drinking water for the total
population
• 97% of drinking water for the rural population
Global Water Budget
Although groundwater is
not very globally significant
in volume, it is a critical
source of domestic water,
because it is part of the
limited budget of fresh
(non-saline) water.

It can be viewed as a
non-renewable resource:
It is possible to withdraw it
faster than nature
replenishes it.
Water is Precious
 The Hydrologic Cycle

< 5% of Earth’s water is fresh water. Of this, 74% is tied up in

glacial ice. Hence, groundwater is a precious commodity.
 Porosity and Permeability

porous sediment:
< 40% porosity
hard rock:
<1% porosity

porosity: volume proportion made up of voids

permeability: connectedness of voids, dictating
capacity to transmit flow
 Porosity Structure of
the Crust
Naturally, porosity will decrease
as load pressure increases, but it
is not simply a function of depth,
as no stratigraphic column is
homogeneous. Nevertheless, the
rocks that dominate the mid- to
lower crust (intrusive igneous and
metamorphic rocks) all tend to
have low porosity.
Fig. 19.03
 Material
saturated with
The Water Table
water lies below
the water table.

Materials that
conduct water
(are porous and
permeable) are
aquifers.

Materials that do
not conduct
water (are well-
cemented,
unfractured, etc.)
are aquicludes
or confining One inch of rain on one acre of ground
layers. results in 27,192 gallons of water (~100,000 L).
 Mines and Quarries Typically Work
Below the Water Table

When worked, below-surface mines and quarries have to be actively pumped.

Stop working, and they fill up with water to the height of the water table.
Height of the
Water Table

The height of the

water table depends
on many factors. In
purely natural
situations, water table
height varies
seasonally, due to
changes in the
amount of rainfall.
 Wetlands
Wetlands are areas of low topography (poor drainage) where
the water table approaches the Earth’s surface. They include
coastal regions (salt marshes), swamps and seasonal ponds.

They are
classified
based on
characteristic
oxygen-poor
soil, specially-
adapted
organisms and
water coverage
during the
nominal
growing
season.
Wetlands, NOT Wastelands
water quality groundwater recharge and discharge

flood
control

carbon
storage
aesthetic and
recreational
value

endangered species habitat

natural fire breaks

coastal storm erosion buffers
 Perched
Perched aquifers are
common, since
Water the geology of
the near-
Table surface can be
fairly complex.
Parts of an
aquifer can
become
perched as a
result of slight
variations in
the clay
content of
sediments.
Clay-rich
sediments tend
to be
impermeable.
Groundwater Moves
(often very slowly)

Groundwater flows due to

variation in pressure below ground.
Springs in Cross Section
Influent and Effluent

When groundwater flows

into streams they are called
effluent.

When the water table drops,

streams become influent,
and water leaks from the
stream bed into the ground.
Confined and
Unconfined
Aquifers
 Artesian Flow

In some areas groundwater is under pressure in a

confined aquifer. This results in artesian flow, where water can
rise to the surface without pumping.
Characteristic US Aquifers

Great Plains: water derived

from the Colorado Front Range

Atlantic Coast: water moves

through young, poorly
lithified sediment

Basin and Range: waters

concentrate in sands of
alluvial fans
 Effect of Groundwater Pumping
A cone of depression exists wherever water is pumped faster
than infiltration and groundwater flow can compensate.
They can be small and local (an individual house’s well)
or large and regional (in a heavy agricultural area).
Groundwater
Pumping
Urbanization and Groundwater Withdrawal
Urbanized areas are ready targets for desertification, loss of
wetlands, and other problems linked to increase in the ratio of
groundwater withdrawal to groundwater recharge.
 Subsidence
In areas of long-term overpumping,
and where recharge is slow,
subsidence can be a major problem.

Groundwater takes up pore space in

sediments and rocks, and acts as
support. Withdraw the water and
aquifer material compacts irregularly.
When the surface subsides,
construction (buildings, pipe systems,
etc.) may suffer huge damage.

This is equally the case in any area

where material is withdrawn from the
ground (oil, mines, etc.). It can be
combatted by injecting water back into
the aquifer as groundwater is
withdrawn.
 Salt Water Intrusion

One consequence of
overpumping in
coastal regions is the
encroachment of
saline seawater into
fresh aquifers.

To combat this, many

coastal communities
re-inject wastewater
into coastal aquifers.
 Water Quality
Groundwaters are ordinarily richer in soluble elements than
surface waters, due to the interaction of water and rock or soil.

This interaction can be beneficial, though, effectively filtering

a number of undesirable less-soluble elements and compounds.

oxygen:

waters usually O-rich: rivers, rain, oceans

transitional: groundwaters
waters usually O-poor: swamps, regions isolated
from atmosphere
 Water
Quality

The EPA
estimates that
15% of all
underground fuel
storage tanks
are leaking.
 Pollution can be described in terms of the nature of sources.

Point source pollution comes from a singular source in space

and tends to contribute a set of specific pollutants.
examples: leaking storage tank or landfill, factory effluent
Nonpoint source pollution comes from sources that are poorly
defined in space and may contribute highly variable
pollutants. examples: runoff, atmospheric deposition

Pollution
 Pollutants Pollutants range from the
road salt/runway de-icer relatively benign to the severely
nutrients -- agriculture dangerous, and each require
specific means of treatment
pesticides -- agriculture
when released into the
volatile organic compounds (VOC):
environment.
PCBs -- electrical power
non-halogenated VOC -- wood treating
halogenated VOC -- dry-cleaning, electronics assembly
hydrocarbons (fuels)
heavy metals -- battery manufacture, metal plating,
petrochemicals
acids/bases -- battery manufacture
radioactive material -- nuclear power and weapons plants,
medical waste
 Although almost 1/3 of all the elements fill
Heavy Metals a bio-essential role, there are limits.

Most of the heavy metals are toxic, even

arsenic (As)
in small doses, and many are also
cadmium (Cd)
carcinogens.
chromium (Cr)
cobalt (Co)
copper (Cu)
lead (Pb)
mercury (Hg)
nickel (Ni)
tin (Sn)
vanadium (V)
zinc (Zn)
 Lead
Lead (Pb) is particularly dangerous to children and people of
poor nutritional status, who absorb greater amounts of it that
reaches the digestive system.

Pb disrupts basic brain and nervous system functions.

Pb in paint was banned in 1978, food canners stopped using

Pb solder in 1991 and the 25-yr phase-out of Pb gasoline
additives was achieved in 1995. This does not mean that
there is no Pb in the environment, however.
The National
Priorities List
(Superfund
Sites)

Yes, there are lots of jobs in

environmental geology.
 Point Source
Groundwater
Contamination
Pumping groundwater
can change local flow
regimes, and hence
the transport of contaminants in the subsurface.
The Main Techniques for Cleanup
The U.S. EPA groups their endeavors to clean up
Superfund sites into three main groups:

• containment of contaminated material

capping soil, constructing drainage control

• separation of contaminant from soil or water

soil vapor extraction, flushing, washing, thermal desorption

• rendering the material less toxic

bioremediation, incineration
Septic Systems: On-Site Wastewater Management

In rural and suburban areas, septic systems are widespread.

All household wastewater goes to the tank: toilets, sinks, washers.
 Septic System
Septic tanks are watertight settling containers
(watertight so they do not contaminate groundwater).

Bacteria present in the human digestive system eat the solids,

converting them to liquids and vapors (largely sulfur-based).

The liquid that flows out of the tank thus has received a first-stage
treatment... but it is far from safe to drink.

The liquid exits to the drain or disposal field, where water loses
pollutants with progressive interaction with soil.

Bacteria in septic tanks are not perfectly efficient and solid sludge
does accumulate and must eventually be pumped out.
 Municipal Wastewater Treatment

In urban areas sewage and ‘used water’ are piped to a treatment

plant. Specifics of wastewater treatment depend on the local
setting and the intended use of the ultimate product.
 From Wastewater to Drinking Water

A typical pattern of
wastewater treatment
will involve the
following steps:

• screening
• settling
• coagulation & flocculation
• filtration These are the steps through which, for
• disinfection (chemical instance, Potomac River water passes
when it goes from Great Falls through
treatment)
treatment to become drinking water.
 Human Impacts on Groundwater
• In arid areas, irrigation increases water loss to evaporation.

• Fertilizing crops, especially in arid areas, contributes to

salination of fresh water resources.

• Urbanization (paving, building) decreases infiltration and

increases runoff loss.

• Removal of forested lands and desertification increase runoff

loss and shrink aquifers.

Keep in mind that groundwater is a

precious, and in many areas non-
renewable, fresh water resource.
10 Ways of Protecting and Conserving
Groundwater
1. dispose of chemicals properly
2. take used motor oil and batteries to a recycling center
3. limit the amount of fertilizer used on plants
4. save cold shower water; take short showers
5. shut water off while brushing teeth
6. run full loads of dishes and laundry
7. check for leaky faucets and have them fixed
8. buy water- and detergent-efficient washers
9. keep a pitcher of drinking water in the refrigerator
10. get involved in water education
 Credits

Some of the images in this presentation come from:

Plummer, McGeary and Carlson, Physical Geology (8th ed)
Press and Siever, Understanding Earth (3rd ed)
Marshak, Earth: Portrait of a Planet (1st ed)
Hamblin and Christensen, Earth’s Dynamic Systems (1st ed)
The Groundwater Foundation
US EPA
R. Machmeier, Univ. Minnesota
Swedish EPA
MAC Shortcourse in Environmental Geochemistry