Neural control and coordination

Neural system (previously called nervous system) is control system of body which consists of
highly specialized cells neurons. Neurons detect and receive information from different sense
organs as stimuli and transmit to central neural system (CNS) through sensory nerve fibres.
CNS is composed of brain and spinal cord. Neural system of higher animals performs three
functions: (i) Receiving sensory input from internal and external environment by sensory nerves
(ii) Processing input information, in CNS (iii) Responding to stimuli through motor
commands to body parts or cells. It is very simple in lower invertebrates. Sponges do not have
neurons. In Hydra all neurons are similar and joined with one another to form forming “primitive
nervous system”. Planaria has two nerve cords (bundles of nerve fibres) that join to form a
rudimentary brain. Earthworm and insects has more evolved nervous system consisting of
ventral nerve cord, paired segmental ganglia . Vertebrates have more developed neural system
as compared to invertebrates. Brain is most complex and advanced in primates, particularly in
human beings. Complexity of neural system has increased during course of evolution due to
development of complex organs and systems in animals. Neural system and endocrine system
jointly coordinate and integrate functions of various body parts to maintain normal physiology.
Human Brain.--Location and Protective Coverings :It is anterior most part of central neural
system lodged in cranial cavity (cranium) of skull. It weighs 1200 to 1400 grams, has about 100
billion neurons. Brain is covered by three membranes or meninges. Innermost membrane,
piamater is thin, very delicate and vascular and invests brain .Next is arachnoid membrane ,is
thin “spi­der webby”. Outermost membrane, duramater is tough fibrous mem­brane adhering
inside skull. Between arachnoid and piamater is a space known as sub-arachnoid space filled
with cerebro­spinal fluid. Space between arachnoid and duramater - subdural space. Subdural
space contains little fluid which is not cerebrospinal fluid.
Structure of Brain: Three parts:1. Fore brain (Prosencephalon) - Olfactory lobes, Cerebrum and
Dien­cephalon. 2. Mid brain(Mesencephalon) -Corpora quadrigemina and Crura cerebri.
3. Hind brain(Rhombencephalon) -Cerebellum, Pons varolii and Medulla oblongata.
Fore Brain: (i) Olfactory lobes: It has pair of short club shaped structures, having an anterior
olfactory bulb and posterior olfactory tract, covered by cerebral hemispheres, visible in ventral
view of brain. Pair of olfactory nerves arises from olfactory lobes. Function: Sense of smell.
(ii) Cerebrum: It is largest and most complex part of brain having left and right hemispheres
connected by bundle of myelinated fibres (Corpus callosum ).Anteriorly corpus callosum is
folded back to form genu & posteriorly splenium which joins fibrous strip called fornix. Left
cerebral hemisphere is smaller than right.
Cerebral Cortex: Outer portion of cerebrum is having grey matter . Surface of cortex is greatly
folded upward folds( gyri),downward grooves(sulci). Beneath grey matter millions of medullated
nerve fibres, connects neurons of cerebral cortex with other parts of brain called White matter.
Lobes: Deep longitudinal fissure, separates two cerebral hemi­spheres. Each hemisphere is
divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes. Central sulcus separates
frontal lobe from parietal lobe. Lateral sulcus separates frontal lobe from temporal lobe.
Parieto-occipital sulcus separates parietal lobe from occipital lobe.
Functional Areas of Cerebrum: (a) Sensory areas: They receive impulses from receptors. (b)
Association areas: They interpret input, store and initiate a response involved in memory,
learning and reasoning, (c) Motor areas: Lies in frontal lobe anterior to central sulcus called
pyramidal cells which initiate contraction of voluntary muscles. Post central (sensory) area lies
in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus. It perceives sensations of pain, temperature,
pressure and touch. Sensory speech area in lower part of parietal lobe . It perceives spoken
word. Auditory (hearing) area lies lateral sulcus in temporal lobe. It is centre for hearing.
Wernicke’s area in temporal lobe that plays a role in understanding speech and writing words.
Visual area in occipital lobe. Olfactory (smell) area lies in temporal lobe. It receives impulses
from nose via olfactory nerve and interprets them .
Taste area in parietal lobe in post central area. Motor speech area ( Broca’s motor) lies in
frontal lobe. Visual association area in occipital area.
Functions: Each lobe of cerebral hemisphere performs :(a) Frontal lobe creative ideas (b)
Temporal lobe sounds are interpreted to understand what is being spoken(c) Parietal lobe
feelings about touch, hot and cold and pain . This area allows to follow directions on map,
reading clock or dressing person(d) Occipital lobe is where eyes see, and interpret what is seen.
Basal Ganglia (Basal Nulcei): These are scattered masses of grey matte in subcortical substance
of cerebral hemispheres. Corpus striatum(largest nucleus) is mass of grey matter situated at
base of cerebral hemispheres Functions : (i)Control movements during voluntary motor activity,
(ii) Control of reflex muscular activity, (iii) Control of muscle tone, (iv) Control of automatic
movements(v) Role in arousal mechanism. Parkinson’s disease due to damage of basal ganglia.
Mid Brain: (i) Corpora quadrigemina: Upper or superior surface of mid brain has two pairs of
rounded protrusions .One Superior colliculi and other pairInferior colliculi. Superior and inferior
colliculi of each side are Corpora bigemina. Functions: Superior colliculi-Sight. Inferior - hearing.
(ii) Cerebral peduncles (Crura cerebri): These are two bundles of fibres which lie on lower side
of mid brain. Function: They relay impulses between cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla
(iii) Diencephalon: Its parts are Epithalamus, Thalamus and Hypothalamus. Epithalamus is thin
and not formed of nervous tissue is vascular and folded to form Anterior choroid plexus Just
behind it, epithelium forms short stalk, Pineal stalk having Pineal body, at its tip- an endocrine
gland , secretes a hormone, Melatonin. Thalamus, is composed of grey matter. Optic nerves
from eyes, form crossing, Optic chiasma in front of hypo-thalamus. Hypophysis (pituitary gland)
is attached to hypothalamus by a stalk, infundibulum. Behind infundibulum, pair of small
rounded eminences, mammillary bodies are present( like nipple). Functions: It is relatively small
(4 gm), highly vascular, integrates and controls visceral activities.It maintains homeostasis,it
controls growth & sexual behaviour ,thermoregulatory centre “thermostat” of body.
It keeps body temperature at roughly 37°C. It is also associated with behavioural activities.
Appetite, thirst and satiety (feeling of being satisfied) centres are located in hypothalamus. It
also influences respiration and heart beat
Hind Brain: (i) Cerebellum: (little cerebrum)Second largest part of brain is cerebellum. It is well
developed and consists of two lateral cerebellar hemispheres and central worm ­shaped part,
Vermis. It has grey matter on outside, Middle layer contains Purkinje cells. Purkinje’s cells rank
are most complex of all neurons. A cross section of cerebellar hemispheres shows tree like
arrangement of grey and white matter called Arbor vitae (“tree of life”).
Functions: Cerebellum controls rapid muscular activities, such as running and involuntary,
Alcohol affects cerebellum& inter­feres with functions of cerebellum.
(ii) Pons Varolii: It is situated in front of cerebellum below mid brain and above medulla
oblongata.It consists of nerve fibres which form bridge between two hemispheres of
cerebellum which pass between higher levels of brain and spinal cord. Pneumotaxic centre
limits inspiration. Functions: It relays impulses between medulla oblongata and supe­rior part of
brain, hemispheres of cerebellum and between cerebrum and cerebellum.
(iii) Medulla oblongata: It extends from pons varolii and continues with spinal cord below. It
has a thin, non-vascular folded structure on its lower side called Posterior choroid plexus.
Functions:It receives and integrates signals from spinal cord and sends to cerebellum and
thalamus. It contains centres that regulate heart rate, breathing, swallowing, salivation,
vomiting and coughing and other involuntary movements.
Brain Stem: Mid brain, Pons varolii & Medulla oblongata connects fore brain and spinal cord.
Limbic System: : Certain components of cerebrum and diencephalon constitute limbic system
(i) Hippocampus: Its shape roughly resembles sea horse, located inside temporal lobe
ii) Amygdala or Amygdaloid nucleus : It is almond shaped located at tip of temporal lobe,
(iii) Septal nuclei: Located in area formed by regions under corpus callosum and cerebral gyrus,
(iv) Mamillary bodies: These are present behind infundibulum. (v) Basal ganglia: They are
scattered masses of grey matter. Functions of limbic system: “emotional brain” (a) it controls
emotional behaviour in form of joy, sorrow, fear, fight, friendship, liking and disliking, b) It
controls food habits necessary for survival of individual, (c) It controls sex behaviour .
Ventricles of Brain: It consist of four hollow, fluid filled spaces inside brain. A lateral ventricle
lies inside each hemisphere of Cerebrum connected to third ventricle by interventricular
foramen (fora­men of Monro). Third ventricle consists of narrow channel between hemispheres
connected by cerebral aqueduct(Aqueduct of Sylvius orIter) in portion of brainstem to Fourth
ventricle in pons and medulla, continuous with central canal of spinal cord. Three openings in
roof of fourth ventricle, a pair of lateral apertures (foramina of Luschka) and a median aperture
(foramen of Magendie) allow cerebrospinal fluid to move upward to subarachnoid space that
surrounds brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): It is secreted by Anterior and Posterior choroid plexus and is found
inside ventricles of brain, central canal of spinal cord and in subarachnoid space around brain
and spinal cord. Functions: (i) Protection CSF protects delicate brain and spinal cord by
providing shock-absorbing medium. (ii) Buoyancy: As brain is immersed in CSF, net weight of
the brain is reduced from 1.4 kg to 0.18 kg. (iii) Excretion: CSF carries harmful metabolic
wastes, drugs etc. from brain to blood. (iv) Endocrine Medium for Brain: Certain hormones are
released into CSF,carried to different parts of brain by CSF where they may act.
Mammalian Characters in Human Brain: (i) Olfactory lobes are small and solid. (ii) Cerebral
hemispheres are quite large in size and divided into lobes. (iii) Corpus callosum is also found.
(iv) Optic lobes are solid and further divided into corpora quadrigemina. (v) Pons varolii is
present. (vi) Cerebellum is very much folded and solid.
Human Spinal Cord: Structure :It is a posterior part of central nervous system which runs mid-
dorsally within vertebral column in neural canal .It is surrounded by three protective
membranes as found in brain. Subarachnoid space is filled with CSF. There is an additional
space, epidural space above Dura mater containing fatty and connective tissues and veins
External Structure: It extends from medulla oblon­gata to level of second lumbar vertebra, 42
to 45 cm long. Its diameter varies at different levels, being enlarged in cervical and lumbar
regions. Cervical enlarge­ment extends from fourth cervical to first thoracic vertebrae- region
from which nerves supplying the arms arise. This enlargement should be in thoracic region; this
is because spinal cord grows at a slower rate than vertebral column. By adulthood verte­bral
column below second lumbar vertebra contains spinal nerves that branch from spinal cord at
higher levels collectively called, cauda equina, or “horse’s tail”. Spinal cord ends as Conus
medullaris at level of intervertebral disc between first and second lumbar vertebral in adults.
From this arises fine connective tissue filament, filum terminate,down to coccygeal region.
Internal Structure: Two indentations, posterior median sulcus and anterior median fissure,
separate spinal cord into left and right symmetrical halves. Inner butterfly-shaped area is grey
matter of spinal cord . Surrounding grey matter are bundles of myelinated nerve fibres or
white columns, which form white matter of spinal cord .In each segment of spinal cord a
spinal nerve arises from each side of cord. Each spinal nerve connects with cord through two
nerve roots. Dorsal nerve root consists of a bundle of sensory axons located in dorsal root
ganglion. These axons extend into posterior horn of grey matter, where they often form
synapses with other neurons, are called interneurons confined to grey matter of cord, form
synapses with motor neurons whose cell bodies are located in anterior horn of grey matter.
Lateral horns lie between anterior and posterior horns. Hollow central canal contains
cerebrospinal fluid.
 Spinal Tracts: Along white matter of spinal cord there are two kinds of fasciculi, or bundles of
axons, ascending tracts, which carry sensory impulses to brain, and descending tracts, which
carry motor impulses from brain to spinal nerves at various levels of cord.Functions :(i)Stimuli
are passed from and to brain through spinal cordii)Centre of spinal reflex action.
Peripheral Neural System: It includes nerves originating from central nervous system and
connecting other organs. Nerves arising from brain are called cranial nerves while those from
spinal cord are termed as spinal nerves. Cranial Nerves: There are 12 pairs of in man.
I.Olfactory Nerve: These nerve arise from olfactory epithelium of nasal chamber enter
olfactory bulb of olfactory lobes and reach temporal lobe of cerebrum. It is sensory nerve
which carries impulses of smell from olfactory epithelium to brain.
II. Optic Nerve-It originate from retina of eye. Two optic nerves meet at floor of diencephalon
to form optic chiasma &lead to occipital lobe of brain. It is sensory nerve and carries impulses
of sight from retina to brain. III. Oculomotor Nerve: it supplies four inferior oblique, superior
rectus, inferior rectus and medial rectus of six extrinsic eye muscles that move eye ball in
orbit. It arises from midbrain. It is a motor nerve and carries im­pulses from brain to muscles.
IV. Trochlear Nerve: it in­nervates extrinsic eye muscle i.e. superior oblique . It is thin­nest and
smallest cranial from mid­brain. It is motor nerve and helps in movement of eye-ball.
V. Trigeminal Nerve: It is largest cranial nerve. It arises from pons varoli. It bears a trigeminal
(Gasserian) ganglion at its origin and divides into three branches.
(a) Ophthalmic Nerve: It is smallest branch . It innervates lacrimal glands, conjunctiva of
eye, forehead, eyelids, It is sensory nerve and carries impulses of touch from these areas to
brain.
(b) Maxillary Nerve: It innervates cheeks, upper gums, upper teeth and lower eyelids. It is a
sensory branch and carries stimuli from these areas.
(c) Mandibular Nerve: It is largest branch . It distributes to teeth , gums of lower jaw, pinna,
VI. Abducens Nerve: it controls extrinsic eye muscle . It originates from pons varoli innervates
lateral rectus muscle of eye ball. It is a motor nerve and controls movements of eye-ball.
VII. Facial Nerve: It arises from pons varoli and bears geniculate ganglion. It innervates taste
buds of tongue and muscles of face and salivary glands. It is mixed nerve. It conveys impulses
from taste buds controls facial expression.
VIII. Vestibulo cochlear Nerve (Auditory Nerve): It comes from internal ear and joins pons
varoli. It is has two branches (a) Vestibular Nerve: It arises from vestibular part of membranous
labyrinth. It is sensory and concerned with equilibrium of body(b) Cochlear Nerve: It originates
from cochlear part of membranous labyrinth. It is sensory branch concerned with hearing.
IX. Glosso-pharyngeal Nerve: It originates medulla oblongata. It innervates taste buds, soft
palate, pharynx, tongue and muscles of pharynx. It is mixed nerve. It controls secretion of
saliva, sense of taste and movement of pharynx.
X. Vagus Nerve: “wanderer”Only cranial nerve to extend beyond head and neck into thorax
and abdomen. It is longest cranial nerve. It originates from medulla oblongata. It bears vagus
ganglion. It innervates pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, stomach, lungs, heart and intestines. It is
a mixed nerve. It controls visceral movements(peristalsis, sound production, respiratory
movements, and heart beat).
XI. Accessory Nerve: It originates from medulla oblongata and spinal cord. It is formed by
union of cranial and spinal roots. It is motor nerve which innervates muscles of pharynx, larynx,
neck and shoulder and controls movements .
XII. Hypoglossal Nerve: It originates from medulla oblongata. It innervates muscles of tongue
and hyoid apparatus. It is a motor nerve controls movements of tongue.
Spinal Nerves: Thirty one pairs They include 8 pairs of cervical nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic
nerves, 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, 5 pairs of sacral nerves, and1 pair of coccygeal nerves. All
are mixed .
Structure: Spinal nerves are formed by union of dorsal afferent (sensory) and ventral efferent
(motor) roots shortly after they leave spinal cord. Distribution: After passing through
intervertebral foramen, each nerve separates into posterior and anterior branches. Posterior
branch supply to muscles and skin of posterior portion of body. Anterior branch to limbs and
lateral and anterior portions of body. Certain spinal nerves join to form following plexuses: i)
Cervical Plexus: It innervates neck and diaphragm(ii) Brachial Plexus: It connects chest and arm.
(iii) Lumbar Plexus:It innervates legs(iv) Sacral Plexus:Sacrum (v)Coccygeal Plexus:Pelvic region.
Autonomic Neural System:This controls and coordinates involuntary activities of various organs,
in which will power of animal is not involved, e.g.secretion of digestive fluid .It is divisible into
two parts: (i) Sympathetic chains: They are paired chains of 21 ganglia from cervical level to
sacrum. Each chain possesses 3 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and 1 sacral ganglia.
(ii) Preganglionic fibres: These are axons of neurons present in spinal cord. They may synapse
directly with postganglionic neuron in chain ganglia. They may extend through chain ganglia
to collateral ganglia synapse to collateral ganglia occur in thoracic and lumbar regions. .
(iii) Collateral ganglia: There are three collateral ganglia in abdominal cavity . They are coeliac
ganglion, superior mesenteric ganglion and inferior mesenteric ganglion.
(iv) Postganglionic fibres: These are axons of neurons which have their cell bodies, either in one
of chain ganglia or in one of collateral ganglon.They release adrenaline, noradrenaline and
dopamine, called adrenergic. Sympathetic nerves stimulate adrenal glands to secrete their
hormones and function with adrenal glands as a well-inte­grated sympathetico -adrenal system.
Parasympathetic Neural System: It consists of preganglionic fibres, parasym­pathetic ganglia and
post-ganglionic fibres. (i) Preganglionic fibres: These are axons of neurons situated in midbrain,
brainstem and sacral region of spinal cord. Fibres coming from brain run along with III, VII, IX
and X cranial nerves while fibres coming from spinal cord pass through 2, 3 and 4 sacral spinal
nerves. These nerves arise from craniosacral region.
 (ii) Parasympathetic ganglia: These are located close to or within viscera. They do not form a
chain. Preganglionic fibres synapse with neurons in parasympathetic ganglia. .
(iii) Postganglionic fibres: These are axons of neurons present in parasym­pathetic ganglia.
They innervate smooth muscles and glands of the viscera. These are Cholinergic neurons
release neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach). In ANS, cholinergic neurons include: (a) All
sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons(b) Sympathetic postganglionic neurons
(c) All parasym­pathetic postganglionic neurons. Autonomic neural system innervates viscera, it
is also called visceral neural system.Functions of ANS: Both sympathetic and parasympathetic
neural systems are antagonistic to each other.
Reflex Action and Reflex Arc: Definition: it is a form of animal behaviour in which stimulation
of a sensory organ (receptor) results in activity of some organ without intervention of will.
Actually it is spontaneous automatic mechanical response to a stimulus without will of animal.
Mechanism of Reflex Action: If reflex action is controlled by spinal cord it is called spinal reflex
action and if it is controlled by brain it is known as cerebral reflex action.
For reflex action five things are essential: (i) Receptor, ii) Sensory nerve fibres iii) A part of
central nervous system, (iv) Motor nerve fibres (v) Effector organ such as muscles and glands.
Sensory nerve fibres bring sensory impulses from receptor organ to CNS. Motor nerve fibres
relay motor impulses from CNS to effector organs. Path of reflex action is reflex arc.
Ex. of Reflex Action: 1. Closing of eyes when strong light is flashed . 2. Withdrawal of limbs when
they are touched by hot things. 3. Watering of mouth on seeing favourite food.
4. Opening of mouth on hearing loud sound5. Withdrawal of limbs in a decapitated frog when
dipped in warm water or touched with an acid 6.Typing, riding a bicycle, knitting etc. But there
are many ex of reflex actions in which animal does not have any knowledge of reflex action.
Ex­amples : 1. Discharge of bile from gall bladder while food passes from opening of bile duct.
2. Peristalsis of alimentary canal. 3. Beating of heart. 4. Secretions of glands.
Importance of Reflex Action: (i) It is an important activity for survival of animal. (ii) It relieves
brain from too much strain. (iii) Responses immediately protect animal from harmful situa­tions.
Reflexes: (i) Unconditioned reflexes are inborn reflexes and transmitted through heredity. They
are inborn or inherited reflexes, e.g., Breast feeding in newly born babies and blinking of eyes
(ii) Conditioned reflexes.: are acquired reflexes during life time of an individual. They are not
constant, viz., they may disappear and reappear again. Pavlov, - father of conditioned reflexes
Characteristics of conditioned reflexes: (i) They are acquired in life. (ii) They depend on previous
experience. (iii) They can be established or abolished. (iv) They are not transmitted by heredity.
Experiments conducted by Pavlov: He rung a bell every time just before food. Gradually dog
learnt to associate bell with food. The dog would salivate when bell was rung even though no
food was placed in its mouth.He called salivation in response to food unconditioned response,
sound of bell conditioned stimulus and salivation in response to bell conditioned response.
Mechanism of conditioned reflexes: It has following parts: (i) Receptors- perceive conditioned
stimulus(ii) A sensory nerve(iii) An area in cerebral cortex which perceives conditioned stimulus,
(iv) Another area in cortex which is connected with centre of unconditioned reflex(v) Motor
nerve (vi) Effector organ which responds, Functions of conditioned reflexes: (i) Most of our
habits are conditioned reflexes, it is of immense personal and social importance, (ii) They play an
part in physiology of learning, (iii) They also help animals to eliminate harmful influences, etc.
(iv) They ensure adaptations of organisms to external environment in course of its life
experience and are essential for its better orientation in changing conditions.
Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System. Neurons ( Nerve Cells):. Fully formed neurons
never divide and remain in interphase throughout life. Shortly after birth, new neurons do not
develop. Certain neurons have flask shaped cytons and are called Purkinje cells, which occur in
cerebellum of brain. A neuron consists of cell body and cytoplasmic processes arising from it.
i) Cell body ( Cyton ): It has abundant cyto­plasm(neuroplasm ) central nucleus with nucleolus.
The cytoplasm has organelles, neurofibrils, neurotubules and Nissl’s granules. Neurofibrils play
a role in transmission of impulses. Neurotubules like microtubules maintain shape of neuron .
Nissl’s granules are RER synthesize proteins for cell. Centrioles are absent in mature
neurons ,but present in neurons associated with production and maintenance of
microtubules. The cytoplasm surrounding nucleus with protein-synthetic machinery, is called
perikaryon. It is concerned with metabolic maintenance and growth.
(ii) Neurites: Processes of neurons. two types: dendrites or dendrons and an axon .
(a) Dendrites (Dendrons): These are shorter, tapering and much branched processes., one to
several. It contain neurofibrils, neurotubules and Nissl’s granules and conduct nerve impulse
towards cell body called afferent processes(b) Axon: It is a single very long process .Part of
cyton from where axon arises is called axon hillock( sensitive part of neuron) . It contains
neurofibrils and neurotubules but does not have Nissl’s granules, Golgi complex, ribosomes, .
Cell membrane of axon is axolemma and cytoplasm axoplasm. Axon ends in group of branches
, terminal arborizations ( telodendria). When terminal arborizations of axon meet dendrites of
another neuron it form a synapse , synaptic knobs which contain mitochondria and secretory
vesicles. Sarcolemma beneath nerve endings, is called motor end plate. Each axon may
possess side branches called collateral fibres which are finer than axonal process. The axon
conducts nerve impulses away from cell body, called efferent process. There are two types of
axon i.e. myelinated and non-myelinated. In myelinated nerve fibres Schwann cells form myelin
sheath around axon.
Gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths called nodes of Ranvier. Myelinated nerve fibres
found in cranial and spinal nerves. In non-myelinated nerve fibres Schwann cells do not form
myelin sheath &without nodes of Ranvier, found in autonomous and somatic neural systems.
Types of Neurons on Basis of Structure: 1. Non-Polar Neurons: It has several projections&
occur in coelenterates e.g., Hydra. 2. Unipolar Neurons: Body has only one axon. It is found
usually in embryonic stage. 3. Pseudo unipolar Neurons: A single process arises from cyton and
divides into axon and dendrite. They are found in dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves.
4. Bipolar Neurons: It has one axon and one dendrite. They are present in retina of eye.
5. Multipolar Neurons: These have several dendrites and an axon. found in cerebral cortex.
Nerve Termination: Nerve fibres terminate in three ways: i)Synapse.The axon of one neuron
ends on dendrites of next neuron. ii) Neuroglandular junction. Axon of neuron terminates on
gland cell. When it ends on muscle fibre, it forms Neuromotor junction.(iii) Many nerve fibres,
for ex. in skin, divide into fine branches sensory Nerve endings.
Main Properties of Neural Tissue: Excitability and Conductivity. i. Excitability: It is ability of
nerve cells to enter active state (state of excitation) in response to stimulus. It arises at
receptors because of stimuli such as chemical, electrical. ii. Conductivity: Excitation does not
remain at site of its origin, transmitted along nerve fibres. Transmission of excitation in a
particular direction is called conductivity. iii. Stimulus: It is sudden change in environment
enough to excite nerve or muscle. If stimulus is able to excite, is threshold stimulus. If not able
to excite, it is sub-threshold stimulus . v. Summation: A series of sub-threshold stimuli applied
to a nerve fibre may succeed in initiating an impulse. This additive effect of several sub-
threshold stimuli is called summation. v. All-or-none Principle: It states that a neuron either
conducts or does not conduct an impulse. If it conducts an impulse it is of maximum size. So,
according to all-or- none principle, a neuron can be thought of as being either “on” or “off”.
vi. Sodium-Potassium Pump: Process of expelling out Na+ and drawing in K+ against gradient
(electrochemical) by active transport in which energy (ATP) is spent. It operates with help of
Na+, K+ pump and ATPase enzyme in cell membrane. This pump is present in all cells of body.
This results in difference in charge on either side of membrane—positive outside and negative
inside. This difference in charge is resting membrane potential and such a membrane is said
to be polarized (resting potential).
Nerve Impulse: It is wave of polarization and depolarization of membrane of nerve cell. Nerve
impulse travels along a neuron or across a synapse or between neuron and muscle.
Transmission of Nerve Impulse: Nerve cells remain bathed in extracellular fluid (ECF) or
interstitial fluid containing large amount of NaCl and HCO3, nutrients and O2 for supplying to
cell and CO2 and other metabolic wastes released into it by cells. However, intracellular fluid
(cytoplasm of neurons) contains large amount of K and magnesium phosphates in addition to
complex proteins and organic molecules. Most of solutes in ECF and intracellular fluid are
electrically charged particles .
Membrane or Ionic Theory of Nerve Impulse: Hodgkin and Huxley i. Nerve impulse conduction
is divisible into two phases— Resting potential and Action membrane potential of nerve.
Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse :In resting nerve fibre(not conducting an impulse)
axoplasm (neuroplasm of axon) contains high conc. of K+ and nega­tively charged proteins and
low conc. of Na+. In contrast, fluids outside axon contain low conc. of K+ and high conc. of Na+
which form conc. gradient. These gradients across Resting membrane are maintained by
active trans­port of ions by Na+ K+ pump which transports 3 Na+ outwards and 2 K+ inwards .
Thus to maintain resting potential sodium-potassium pump operates.
Depolarization: When a stimu­lus of adequate strength (threshold stimulus) is applied at a site
on polar­ized membrane, site A becomes freely permeable to Na+.
This leads to rapid influx of Na+ followed by reversal of polarity at that site, i.e., outer surface
of membrane becomes negatively charged and inner side becomes positively charged hence
de-polarised. Electrical potential difference at site A is called action potential.At sites
immediately ahead, axon ( site B) membrane has positive charge on outer surface and negative
charge on its inner surface. As a result, a current flows on inner surface from site A to site B. On
outer surface current flows from site В to site A .Hence action potential is generated at site B.
Sequence is repeated along length of axon and consequently impulse is conducted. Rise in
stimulus-induced permeability to Na+ is short lived, followed by rise in permeability to K+.
Within fraction of a second, K+ diffuse outside membrane and restores resting potential of
membrane called repolarization and fibre becomes more responsive to further stimulation.
Refractory Period: Repolarization period returns cell to its resting potential. Neuron is now
prepared to receive another stimulus and conduct it in same manner. Until repolarization occurs
neuron cannot conduct another impulse. It becomes necessary to restore normal resting
membrane potential . Time taken for restoration is called refractory period which is very short
,i.e. one millisecond (1/1000 second). Thus nerve fibre can transmit about 1000 impulses per
second . Speed of Nerve impulse: In man, this is max. speed of 130 m/ sec,
Saltatory Conduction of Nerve Impulse: This impulse conduction apply to medulated neurons.
However, myelin sheath of axons in body insulates axons except at nodes of Ranvier. When an
impulse travels along myelinated neuron, depolarization occurs only at nodes. It leaps over
from one node to next. It accounts for greater speed of an impulse travelling along myeli­nated
neuron .Less energy is required for saltatory conduc­tion than for conduction along non-
myelinated neuron because smaller amounts of ATP are used to operate sodium pump. It is up
to 50 times faster than non-myelinated nerve fibre.
 This type of conduction occur in myelinated fibre. Myelin is fatty material with a high electrical
resistance and act as electrical insulator in same way as rubber and plastic covering of electrical
wiring.Combined resistance of axon membrane and myelin sheath is very high, but where breaks
in myelin sheath occur known as nodes of Ranvier, resistance to current flow between axoplasm
and fluid outside cell is low. It is only at these nodes local circuits are setup.This means, in
effect that action potential jump from node to node and passes along myelineted axon faster as
.compared to series of small local circuits in a non-myelinated axon. this type of conduction is
called saltatory conduction. Leakage of ions takes place only in nodes of Ranvier and less

          
energy is required for saltatory conduction.
Synaptic transmission
When AP develop in pre synaptic membrane, it becomes permeable for Ca . Ca enter in pre
++ ++

synaptic membrane & vesicles burst due to stimulation of Ca and release of neurotransmitters
++

(Ach) in synaptic cleft. Ach reaches post synaptic membrane via synaptic cleft & bind to
receptors. It develops excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP). EPSP develop due to opening
of Na gatted channels. Cholinesterase enzyme is found in Post synatic membrane.This enzyme
+

decomposes Ach into choline & Acetate.Neuro inhibitory transmitter (GABA) binds with post
synaptic membrane to open Cl gatted channels and hyperpolarization of neuron occurs. Now
–

potential is called inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP) & further nerve conduction is
blocked.Physiological properties of nerve fibre are detected by cathode ray oscilloscope
Neuron conducts the impulse in the form of electro chemical wave.Conduction of nerve impulse
is unidirectional.Velocity of nerve impulse µ Diameter of neuron.In mammals, the velocity of
nerve Impulse is 100 to 130 meter/sec.This velocity is affected by physical & chemical factor,
such as pressure, cold, heat, chloroform and ether etc.
 Sense organs-Animals possess some specialised structures to perceive different type of changes
(stimuli) from external environment and transmit to central nervous system through sensory
nerve fibres.A sensory organ is sensitive to a specific stimulus like temperature, chemicals,
touch, light etc. Based on their location in body sensory organs are of three. types :
1.Exteroceptors : These organs receive stimuli from external environment. Ex- Nose, Eyes,
Skin.
2.Interoceptors : These organs are associated with internal environment of body and receive
changes from internal environment. Ex-conc. of carbon-dioxide in blood , hunger, thirst,asphyxia.
3.Proprioceptors : These organs are present in joints, tendons, muscles and connective tissues
which perceive tension and pressure and helps in orientainons of body.
Cutaneous Receptors-Skin envelopes entire body, and considered as tangoreceptor. Numerous
sensory papillae found in dermis of skin receive stimuli of touch, cold, heat, temp. and pain.
These structures of skin receive impulses from nerve endings in skin of following types
1.Tactile Receptors :These receptors are present as naked endings of sensory nerve fibres on
hair follicles in dermis of skin. These are excited when hairs come in contact with some object.
These endings are very small sized encapsulated structures called sensory corpuscles. Those are
sensitive to touch and called Meissner's corpuscles. Their number is much more in nipples, lips,
glans penis, palm, sole and in fingers. Number of these corpuscles decreases as a person grows
older. Corpuscles sensitive to strong and sustained contacts are situated deep in dermis and
called as Pacinian corpuscles. 2.Pain Receptors (Algesireceptors) : Numerous branched nerve
fibres are scattered in epidermis as well as dermis of skin. They possess naked nerve endings.
sensitive to chemical, electrical, and mechanical stimuli, cause sensations of pain in body.
3.Thermo Receptors : Network of sensory nerve fibres is situated closely to hair follicles in
dermis of skin. These are sensitive to stimuli related to temperature cold, heat etc. Because of this
sense perception our hairs get erected during excessive cold. Sensory organs excited by cold and
 G u s ta to ry p o re
S e n s o r y h a ir E p it h e liu m

S e n s o r y c e ll

B a s a l c e ll

C o n n e c t iv e t is s u e

N e r v e fib r e

H a ir S h a ft

S tr a tu m c o rn e u m

S tr a t u m lu c id u m
F r ig id o r e c e p to r

M e is s n e r 's c o r p u s c le s
S w e a t g la n d

H a i r p a p illa
C a lo r e c e p to r

H a ir r o o t
P a c in a in c o r p u s c le s
Eye and ear are also called "teleoreceptors", because these receive impulse from far places.
(A)Eye (Photoreceptor) :Each eye is an hollow ball like round structure called eye ball situated
in bone in skull called"Eyeorbit".Only 1/5 of eye is seen from out side 4/5 part is in eye orbit.
th th

(1)Eye lids or palpebrae:-There are two eyelids upper & lower for protection. Eyelids are
immovable in snakes , absent in fishes.One transparent membrane called nictitating membrane
or third eye lid vestigeal in human called Plicasemilunaris.Eye lashes are found at both
eyelids.
(2)Glands :- For cleaning and lubrication.(a)Meibomian glands :-Present at Inner surface of
eyelids,secrete an oily substance which prevent friction between two eye lid.(b)Lacrimal
glands :- At outer angle of each eye ball are lacrimal gland, which secrete water like substance
"Tear" which moistune cornea, eyelids and conjunctiva and cleans it.(contains bacteriolytic
enzyme Lysozyme) activate after four months of birth in child.(c)Gland of zeis : in margin of
eye lid.
Harderian glands:These are absent in human. In mammals, meibomian glands are present.
(d)Gland of moll :- These are modified sweat gland found in eye lashes.
(3)Muscles of eye balls :-There are 6 skeletal muscles in eyeball which help in rotation of eye
ball into eyeorbit. Out of these 4 are rectus and 2 are oblique muscles. External rectus muscle
rotates eyeball towards outside.Internal rectus muscle rotates eyeball toward inside.Superior
rectus and inferior oblique muscle collectively help eyeball to rotate upwards.Inferior rectus and
superior oblique muscle collectively help eyeball to rotate downwards. Any defect in one of
these muscles causes strabismus or squint eyes . In this defect, eye ball remains inclined to any
of one side. Eye muscles are innervated by occulomotor (III). Pathetic (IV) Abducens (VI)
Nerve.
Internal structure of eye ball :Wall of eye ball has three layers.(1)Fibrous tunic :-It is
outermost covering of eye ball. It is made up of hard and thick connective tissue divided into 2
(b)Sclerotic layer/Sclera :-It is made up of white, hard, opaque thick fibrous connective tissue .
It is inner portion of eye ball, non-vascularized, white colour, called "White of eye" mesodermal
in origin. Inner layer of eyelids remain streched over anterior part of sclera in form of
translucent membrane called conjunctiva made up of epidermis of skin. Thinnest epidermis
extends up to margin of cornea i.e. conjunctiva is thinnest epidermis in animal body.
(2)Vascular tunic :- It is middle ,coloured layer of eyeball, richly supplied with blood
capillaries. Melanin pigment is found in this layer. Due to presence of pigment eye looks like
blue, brown, black in colour. This has three parts :-(a)Choroid layer :-It is vascular tunic lie
below sclerotic layer. It contains pigment cells & blood vessels.It is dark brown darkens cavity
of eyeball to prevent internal reflection of light, nourishes retina.
(b)Ciliary body :-It is lower swollen portion below limbus. It has ciliary processes which
project into eyeball.It has ciliary muscles (i) circular (ii) meridional.Inner end of meridional is
attached to choroid & outer end at junction of sclera and cornea. (c)IRIS :-Choroid layer
separates from sclerotic layer towards inner side and forms a coloured screen called iris. Muscles
of iris are ectodermal in origin, muscles of body are mesodermal in origin. There is an
aperture in Centre of iris, called Pupil. Light rays enter eyeball through pupil.2 types of muscles
are with iris. (a)Radial dilatory muscles :-These are outer unstriated muscles, if these muscles
contract diameter of pupil is increased in dim light, called Mydriasis.b)Circular sphincter
muscles :-These are scattered in inner part of iris. Due to contraction (In bright day light ),
diameter of pupil is decreased called miosis. Iris controls intensity of light by increasing or
decreasing diameter of pupil . Parasympathetic fibres constrict & sympathetic fibre dilate pupil.
(3)Neurosensory tunic :-It is inner most layer of eye ball and has 3 parts :-(1)Pars ciliaris
:-This is attached with ciliary bodies.There are projections at surface of ciliary body called Orra
serrata (2)Pars iridica :- This part lies just after iris. has pigmented cells.(3)Pars optica :Retina
just below choroid layer. It has following layer.
(a)Pigmented layer :- It is outer most layer. In cells of this layer, pigment is found called
melanin (receptor cells)(b)Sensory layer :- This is made up of specialized sensory cells. Rods
and cones are found in this layer. Receptor cells known as photoreceptors cells.Rods are long,
thin, cylindrical cells. These are numerous in number.(1110-1125 Lacs)Rods differentiates
between light and dark. These are more sensitive than cones.A purple coloured pigment is found
in rods called Rhodopsin/Visual purple.Cones are thick and small cells which differentiate
among different colours in full light.(65 Lacs)Iodopsin/Visual violet is present in cones.
Iodopsin/Visual violet is present in cones.Only rods are found in retina of owl( nocturnal
animal). A horizontal neurons layer is present just below rods and cones, called outer plexiform
layer connects rods and cones together.Then comes layer of bipolar neurons. Each bipolar
neuron has a dendron and one axon, speciality of retina. Their dendrites form synapses between
rods & cones .Axons are jointed together by specific nerve cells, called Amacrine cells. Such
neurons do not have nerve fibres is called "Inner plexiform layer".In between bipolar neurons,
supporting cells are found and called Muller's cells.
(c)Ganglionic layer :- This is made up of nerve ganglia. These nerve ganglia form synapses
with axons of bipolar neurons.Axons of all nerve cells combine to form optic nerve, penetrates
retina and goes to brain.Point, at which retina is pierced by optic nerve, cones and rods are
absent.
No image will be formed at that place known as "Blind spot.Just above blind spot there is a
place, where only cones are present. Yellow pigments are found (xanthophyl) in these cones
known as yellow spot or macula lutea .A groove or notch is found in area centralis, called fovea
centralis, most sensitive part of eye. Cones are obliquely placed at this place. An enlarged image
of object is formed here.Retina of eye ball is ectodermal in origin.
Lens :- A transparent, ectodermal, biconvex lens is present just after iris connected by ciliary
body with Suspensory ligaments. These ligaments are flexible and this can slide lens and can
(a)Aqueous chamber :-Part of eye ball between cornea and lens is filled with an alkaline fluid,
called aqueous humor, transparent fluid.Iris divides this aqueous chamber into two parts
(b)Vitreous chamber :- Cavity of eye ball between lens and retina . A jelly like fluid is filled in
this chamber, called vitreous humor.In this fluid 99% water, some salts, a mucoprotein called
vitrin and a mucopolysaccharide- Hyaluronic acid are present. It is form during embryonic stage.
In this chamber Hyalocytes cells are found.Aqueous and vitreous humor fluids are secreted by
glands of ciliary body. Aqueous humor leak out by canal of schlemm into blood capillaries and
again reach upto their veins.Both these fluid maintain proper pressure inside cavity of eye ball.
These check eye ball from collapsing. If this canal of schlemm is blocked by any reason and
fluids do not return back to veins fluid is increased in chambers of eye.When amount of this
humor is increased in eye chambers then pressure is increased inside eye ball. Thus retina
pressure is increased known as glaucoma.A thin Hyaloid canal is also found in vitreous humor
from blind spot to central point of lens. It provide nourishment to lens which gradually
atrophied.
WORKING OF EYES Light rays emitted by any object enter eye. A small, real and inverted
image of object is formed at retina. Sensory cells of retina are sensitized, and optic nerve carries
this impulse to brain. At this time animal is able to see object.Cornea, aqueous humor and
biconvex lens completely refract light rays coming from object. As a result of this an inverted
image is formed at retina. Just like diaphragm of a camera iris of eye, decreases or increases
diameter of pupil according to light. Iris expands to decreas pupil in high intensity of light so a
small amount of light touches retina.When light is dim, iris itself constricts to increase diameter
of pupil.
ACCOMMODATION or Focussing –Ability to change focal length of lens by changing the
curvature of lens, is called accommodation power. Only mammals and birds have this
(d)Telescopic vision:- This is found in birds.Sharpest vision is found in eagle.Shortest sight is
found in monkey.In normal condition muscle fibres of ciliary body remain relaxed and lens is
stretched by its suspensory ligaments, and due to this lens is flat. A flat lens has more focal
length. As a result of this eye can see long distant objects easily.To see near by objects, sphincter
muscles of ciliary body contract and ciliary body becomes broad, suspensory ligaments becomes
loose and relaxed. As a result of this relaxation of ligament lens becomes biconvex, and now its
focal length is reduced. Now animal is able to see near by object easily.
TYPES OF VISION :-(a)Monocular vision :- Most of vertebrates have their eyes situated on
lateral sides of head and due to this animal is capable to see large area of both sides. It is called
monocular vision.e.g. rabbit, frog. Chemical explanation of vision – Cones and rods of eye are
stimulated by light rays.A shiny visual purple pigment is found in rods of retina called
Rhodopsin formed by a protein opsin and a coloured pigment Retinal, just like haemoglobin of
blood.
Opsin is also called scotopsin.In bright light, rhodopsin is decomposed into opsin protein and
retinal pigments. This chemical change is sight impulse is carried by optic nerve to brain, and
animal is able to see.In dark, rods synthesize rhodopsin again with help of opsin, retinal and
enzyme.This is reason that we can not see any thing, when we move to dark place from a
enlighted place (for some time only) In same way we are unable to see in light if we are coming
from dark place because it will take time to synthesize or decompose the rhodopsinIt is called
adaptation.For resynthesis of rhodopsin, animal blinks its eyelids.Retinin is formed by vitamin
A so deficiency of vit A causes night blindness.Cones able us to differentiate among colours and
bright light. Cones have a pigment called Iodopsin in place of rhodopsin of rods. It is
decomposed into photopsin and retinal.There are three types of cones in retina:-(a)Erythrolab
-Red cones(b)Chlorolab-Green cones (c)Cynolab- Blue cones.We are able to acknowledge
different colours due to three types of cones and their combination.Red, green and blue are the
Eyes of some animals shine at night, becauseof pigment just outside retina in choroid layer of
eyeball, which reflects light rays coming from retina. This layer is called Tapetum. In eyes of
birds pecten is found. Emmetropia:- Normal vision of eyes is called emmetropia.
Defects of eye :-1. Hypermatropia (far sightedness):-Person is able to see objects at far
distance, unable to see close objects due to small size of eyeball or flatness of lens, image is
formed behind retina. To cure this wear convex lenses . In old age this may be due to reduction
in flexibility of lens or ciliary body, known as presbyopia.2. Myopia or Nearsightedness or
short sightedness:-Person is able to see objects close but is unable to see objects at far distance,
due to enlargement of eyeball or increased convexity of lens.Image is formed before retina
because light rays converge before retina.To overcome this defect person should wear concave
lenses .
3.Astigmatism:- In this curvature of cornea is changed as a result of that light rays do not focus
on macula lutea, causing incomplete and blurred vision. This may be cured by cylindrical lenses.
4.Night blindness:- This is due to deficiency of vit A, synthesis of Rhodopsin is reduced, as a
result of this person is unable to see in dim light or night.5.Xerophthalmia:- Keratinisation of
cunjunctiva and cornea becomes solid due to deficiency of vit A.6.Trachoma:- In this watery
liquid oozes out from eyes in excess so eyes become red due to irritation caused by a Chlamydia
trachomatis.7.Strabismus:- It is due to loosening or contraction of any of 6 skeletal muscles
which give position to eye ball in orbit. Eye ball inclines towards one side of orbit, cured by
operation .8.Cataract:- In this lens becomes more solid, flat. It occurs in old age. Lens becomes
opaque, and reduces its power of accommodation, person can not see. A new lens is put in place
of defective lens by operation.9.Glaucoma:- If canal of schlemm is blocked in eyeball, aqueous
humour can not return to veins pressure is increased in eye chambers and retina is damaged, and
person becomes blind. 10.Photophobia:- In this proper image is not formed in bright
light.11.Colour blindness:- It is genetic disorder of X- chromosome. It is due to recessive gene.
Statoacoustic organ Ear :-(Phonoreceptors).One pair of ears back to eyes ,Two main functions
of ears :-(1)To receive sound waves (hearing)(2)To maintain body balance..
Structure: It consists of three portions: (i) External ear, (ii) Middle ear (iii) Internal ear.
1. External Ear:It comprises pinna, external auditory meatus (canal) & tympanic membrane.
Pinna:It is projecting elastic cartilage covered with skin. Its most prominent outer ridge is called
helix. Lobule is soft pliable part at its lower end composed of fibrous and adipose tissue richly
supplied with blood capillaries. It is sensitive as well a effective in collecting sound waves.
(ii) External Auditory Meatus: It is a tubular passage supported by cartilage in its exterior and
bone in its inner part. It is internally lined by hairy skin and ceruminous (wax glands) modified
sweat glands which secrete cerumen (ear wax) which prevents foreign bodies entering ear.
(iii) Tympanic membrane (tympanum): Separates tympanic cavity from external auditory
meatus. It is thin and semi-transparent, almost oval. Central part of membrane is called umbo.
Handle of malleus is firmly attached to membrane’s internal surface.
Functions of External Ear: It directs sound waves towards tympanic membrane which produce
pressure changes over tympanic membrane. Cerumen prevents entry of foreign bodies into ear.
2.. Middle Ear:(i)Tympanic cavity, filled with air, connected with nasopharynx through Eustachian
tube (auditory tube), which equalize air pressure in tym­panic cavity with outside. (ii) There is a
small flexible chain of three small bones called ear ossicles- malleus (hammer shaped), incus
(anvil shaped) and stapes (stirrup shaped). Malleus is attached to tympanic mem­brane on one
side and to incus on other side. Incus is connected with stapes, which is attached to oval
membrane covering fenestra ovalis (oval window) of inner ear. Malleus is largest ossicle,
however, stapes is smallest ossicle and smallest bone in body. (iii) Two skeletal muscles, tensor
tympani attached to malleus and stapedius attached to stapes, are also present in middle ear.
Stapedius is smallest muscle in body. (iv) Middle ear is connected with inner ear
through two small openings closed by membranes. These openings are (a) fenestra ovalis (oval
window) (b) fenestra rotunda (round window).Fenestra ovalis is covered by foot plate of stapes.
Fenestra rotunda is enclosed by a flexible secondary tympanic membrane responsible for
equalizing pressure on either side of tym­panic membrane Functions of Middle ear: (i) Due to
pressure changes by sound waves, tympanic membrane vibrates. ii) It transmits sound waves
from external to internal ear through chain of ear ossicles, (iii) Intensity of sound waves is
increased about twenty times by ear ossicles. (iv) From tympanic cavity extra sound is carried to
pharynx through Eustachian tube. 3. Internal Ear:There is cavity on each side enclosed in bone
which contains perilymph, membranous labyrinth floats in perilymph which consists of three
semicircular ducts, utricle, saccule, endolymphaticus and cochlea.
(i) Semicircular Ducts: There are three semicircular ducts; anterior, posterior and lateral . They
arise from utricle. Anterior and posterior semicircular ducts arise from crus commune. Each
semicircular duct is enlarged at one end to give rise to rounded ampulla. Each ampulla contains
a sensory patch of cells, the crista. Each crista consists of sensory and supporting cells. Sensory
cells bear long sensory hairs at their free ends and nerve fibres at other end. Sensory hairs are
partly embedded in a gelatinous mass, cupula. Cristae are concerned with balance of body.
(ii) Utricle, Endolymphaticus and Saccule: Utricle is structure to which all three semicircular
ducts are connected. Saccule is joined with utricle by a narrow utriculosaccular duct. From this
duct a long tube, ductus endolymphaticus arises which ends blindly as saccus endolymphaticus.
Both utricle and saccule contain sensory patches, maculae. A macula comprises sensory and
supporting cells similar to crista. Hair are not actually motile and embedded in a gelatinous
membrane, otolith membrane in which there are small crystals of calcium carbonate, otolith.
Cristae and maculae are the receptors of balance.
(iii) Cochlea: It is the main hearing organ which is connected with saccule by a short ductus
reuniens leading from saccule.
It is spirally coiled having a snail shell appearance. It tapers from a broad base to an almost
pointed apex. Internally it consists of three fluid filled chambers or canals, upper scala vestibuli,
lower scala tympani, and middle scala media (cochlear duct). Both scala vestibuli and scala
tympani are filled with perilymph. Scala media is filled with endolymph. Both scala vestibuli and
scala tympani are connected with each other at apex of cochlea by a small canal, helicotrema.
It is important to mention that near base of scala vestibuli wall of membranous labyrinth
comes in contact with fenestra ovalis, while at lower end of scala tympani lies fenestra rotunda.
Functions of Ear: It performs functions of hearing and balancing (equilibrium).
1. Mechanism of Hearing:Sound waves are collected by external ear . They pass through across
middle ear by malleus, incus and to stapes bones which fits into fenestra ovalis. Perilymph
external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane which is caused to vibrate. Vibrations are
transmitted to internal ear which receives vibrations through membrane covering, fenestra
ovalis. From perilymph vibrations are transferred to scala vestibuli of cochlea and then to scala
media through Reissner’s membrane. Thereafter, movements of endolymph and tectorial
membrane stimulate sensory hairs of organ of Corti. Impulses thus received by hair cells are
carried to brain (temporal lobe of each cerebral hemisphere) through auditory nerve where the
sensation of hearing is recognised. It is evident that external and middle ears serve to transmit
sound waves to internal ear. It is in internal ear that transformation of the vibrations into nerve
impulses for relay to brain takes place. During loud sound, some sound waves are transferred
from scala vestibuli to scala tympani through helicotrema. From scala tympani sound waves are
transmitted to tympanic or middle ear cavity through membrane covering fenestra rotunda.
From tympanic cavity sound waves are transferred to pharynx through Eustachian tube.
2. Equilibrium:Semicircular canals, utricle and saccule of membranous labyrinth are structures
of equilibrium (balancing). Whenever man gets tilted , hair cells of cristae and maculae are
stimulated by movement of endolymph and otolith.
Stimulus is carried to brain through auditory nerve and change of position is detected by
medulla oblongata of brain. i. Meniere’s Disease: Spinning or whirling vertigo (dizziness)
ii. Ottis Media: This is an acute infection of middle ear caused by bacteria and associated with
infection of nose and throat.
Types of receptors General Senses-Touch(Tangoreceptors ,Thigmoreceptor) Thermoreceptor
Heat(Caloreceptors) ,Pain(Algesireceptors<) Electric current(Galvanoreceptors) Gravity–
Georeceptors), Equilibrium(Statoreceptors) Blood pressure (Baroreceptors) Chemical changes–
Chemoreceptors) Special senses Vision(Photoreceptors) Hearing(Phonoreceptors) Smell–
OlfactoreceptorsTaste–Gustatoreceptors.(2(i)Merkel's disc (Corpuscles) : Epidermis of non hairy
(glabrous) skin,(ii)Meissner's corpusle : Dermis of skin of finger tip, lips and nipples. Sense of
touch and gentle pressure.(iii)Pacinian corpuscle : Present in subcutaneous tissue of palm, sole of
finger etc. stimulated by strong pressure contact .(iv)Corpuscle of golgi :Subcutaneous tissue of
fingers. (v)Corpuscle of mazzoni : Sub cutaneous tissue of fingers.Free never ending : Present in
skin, perceive sensation of touch.(3)Thermoreceptors(i)Ampullae of lorenzini : Scoliodon
(Fishes) (ii)Organ of ruffini : Caloreceptor - Heat(iii)End bulb of krause : Fridoreceptor – cold
(4)Tactile receptors in mammals are maximum on face(5)Current of water : Rheoreceptors lateral
line sense organ in fishes and tadpole of amphibians detect water current. Olfactoreceptor
:These are in upper part of nasal chamber in olfactory epithelium called as schnederian
membrane related with olfactory bulb. It is extension of limbic system.This bulb is situated
below frontal lobe of cerebral hemisphere and above ethmoid bone of nasal chamber. Three
types of cells are found in olfactoreceptors.(1)Bipolar olfactory nerve cells : It is special types
of nerve cells found at anterior end of olfactory cells, contact with external environment in nasal
chamber. Sensory hairs are related with dendrites of bipolar nerve cells.Middle part of olfactory
cell is cyton and Posterior part is axon, nonmyleinated. (2)Columnar epithelial cells :Supporting
cells present arounds bipolar olfactory cells, provides support to olfactory cells.
Some small conical cells at basal part of olfactoreceptor, provide base to olfactoreceptor. A layer
of connective tissue below olfactoreceptor called as Lamina propria. 3)Mucous glands :
(Bowman's gland) situated in Lamina propria opens at outer part through fine duct. Their
secretory mucous substance dissolve smell particle and carry to sensory hair of olfactory cells.
Nonmyleinated axons of all olfactosensory cells make synapse with dendrites of multipolar
neurone of olfactory bulb. Number of receptors stimulated indicates strength of smell.In addition
to smell receptor, a network of nerves is found in nose, mouth and tongue.Network formed by
trigeminal nerve of V cranial nerve. It is also known as Dentist's nerve, reacts to messages of pain
of teeth. It also convey message of smell to brain. Such as ammonia, vinegar etc.Trigeminal can
protect by warning about harmful chemical in air. Bowman's glands inside nose release mucous
fluid to get rid of irritating susbtances.Loss of sense of smell is known as anosmia. It occur due
to congenital abnormalities of Olfactory bulbs or nerves.
Tongue or Organ of TasteA thick, muscular and movable organ, in mouth cavity. Tongue bears
four types of small papillae located with taste buds. Taste buds are much numerous in
circumvallate and foliate papillae. Taste buds are formed by transformation of epithelial cells of
tongue possesses two types of cells -1.Supporting Cells : These cells are elongated in middle
region. They do not bear sensory hairs at their free ends.2.Sensory cells : These cells are
elongated, buldge in middle part, they bear sensory hair at their free ends.Each taste bud is flask
or barrel shaped. It's upper part opens at epithelial surface of tongue through a fine pore. These
sensory hairs, exposed to outside through gustatory pore are stimulated by food
substances.Sensory cells are chemoreceptor in nature and taste food while it is dissolved in
saliva. Food substances get mixed with saliva to enter into pores of taste buds .In human
different regions of the tongue are sensitive to different taste. Anterior and free end of tongue are
sensitive to sweet and salty, lateral sides to soury taste, while posterior part is particularly
sensitive to bitter taste.
 CERANIAL NERVEST 12 pairs of cranial nerves are listed in table 8.6 and pictured in figure 8.37.
They are designated by Roman numerals from I to XII. There are two general categories of
cranial nerve function: sensory and motor. Sensory functions can be divided into the special
senses, such as vision, and the more general senses, such as touch and pain in the face. Motor
functions are subdivided into somatic motor and parasympathetic. Somatic motor cranial nerves
innervate skeletal muscles in the head and neck. Parasympathetic cranial nerves innervate
glands, smooth muscle throughout the body, and cardiac muscle of the heart. Some cranial
nerves are only sensory, and some are only somatic motor, whereas other cranial nerves are
mixed nerves with sensory, somatic motor, and parasympathetic functions. Three cranial nerves
—the olfactory (I), optic (II), and vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves—are sensory only. Four other
cranial nerves—the trochlear (IV), abducens (VI), accessory (XI), and hypoglossal (XII) nerves—
are considered somatic motor only (although these motor nerves do provide proprioceptive
information). Trigeminal nerve (V) has sensory and somatic motor functions. It has the greatest
general sensory distribution of all the cranial nerves and is the only cranial nerve supplying sen-
sory information to the brain from the skin of the face. Sensory information from the skin over
the rest of the body is carried to the CNS by spinal nerves. Injections of anesthetic by a dentist
are designed to block sensory transmission through branches of the trigeminal nerve from the
teeth. These dental branches of the trigeminal nerve are probably anesthetized more often than
any other nerves in the body.The oculomotor nerve (III) is somatic motor and parasym-pathetic.
The facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) nerves have all three functions: sensory,
somatic motor, and para sympathetic (table 8.6). Vagus nerve is probably most important
parasympathetic nerve in the body. It helps regulate functions of the thoracic andBecause
autonomic neural system innervates the viscera, it is also called visceral neural system.
Functions of Autonomic Neural System: Functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic neural
systems are antagonistic to each other.
1. Excitability: It is the ability of the nerve cells and fibres to enter into an active state called the
state of excitation in response to a stimulus. Excitation arises at the receptors on account of
various stimuli such as light, temperature, chemical, electrical or pressures which con­stantly act
on the organisms.
2. Conductivity: The excitation does not remain at the site of its origin. It is transmitted along
nerve fibres. The transmission of excitation in a particular direction is called conductivity.
iii. Stimulus: A stimulus is sudden change in the environment (external or internal) which is
strong enough to excite the nerve or muscle or organism as a whole. If the stimulus is capable to
excite a given tissue, it is called threshold stimulus (adequate stimulus). If the stimulus is not
capable to excite any response, it is called sub-threshold stimulus (inadequate stimulus).
v. Summation: As stated above, a sub-threshold stimulus is unable to generate a nerve impulse.
A series of sub-threshold stimuli applied to a nerve fibre may succeed in initiating an impulse.
This additive effect of several sub-threshold stimuli is called summation.
v. All-or-none Principle: It states that a neuron either conducts or does not conduct an impulse.
If it conducts an impulse it is always of maximum size. Therefore, according to the all-or- none
principle, a neuron can be thought of as being either “on” or “off”. vi. Sodium-Potassium Pump:
The process of expelling out sodium ions and drawing in potassium ions against concentration
gradient and electrochemical gradient is called Sodium Potassium pump. Thus it transports
sodium from inside the cell to outside and potassium from outside into the cell by active
transport in which a considerable amount of energy (ATP) is spent. It operates with the help of
Na+, K+ and ATPase enzyme located in the cell membrane. This pump is present in all the cells of
the body. The result of sodium-potassium exchange pump is that there is a difference in charge
on either side of the membrane—positive outside and negative inside. This difference in charge
on either side of the membrane of a resting neuron is the resting membrane potential and such
Nerve Impulse: A nerve impulse may be defined as wave of depolarization of the membrane of
the nerve cell. The nerve impulse travels along a neuron or across a synapse (junction), between
one neuron and another, or between a neuron and an effector, such as a muscle or gland.
Transmission of Nerve Impulse: The nerve cells remain bathed in the extracellular fluid (ECF) or
interstitial fluid containing a large amount of sodium chloride and bicarbonates. In addition, it
contains nutrients and oxygen for supplying to the cell and carbon dioxide and other metabolic
wastes released into it by the body cells. (iii) Iris: The iris is a circular muscular diaphragm
containing the pigment giving eye its colour. It sepa­rates the aqueous humour region into
anterior and posterior chambers. It extends from the cili­ary body across the eyeball in front of
the lens. It has an opening in the centre called the pupil. It contains two types of smooth
muscles, circular muscles (sphincters) and radial muscles (dilators), of ectodermal origin.
The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by the radial muscles contracting in dim
light and the circular muscles contracting in bright light.
Both of these sets of muscles are under the control of the autonomic nervous system.
Sympathetic stimulation causes the radial muscles to contract and the pupil to dilate, or get
larger. Parasympathetic stimulation causes the circular muscles to contract and the pupil to
constrict.
Structure of Human Eye: It is a hollow, spherical 2.5 cm in diameter. Its wall is composed of
three coats: 1. Outer fibrous coat— sclera, cornea. 2.Middle vascular coat— choroid, ciliary
body, iris. 3.Inner nervous coat— retina.
1.(i) Sclera:( white of eye) covers most of eye ball. It contains collagen fibres. It protects and
maintains shape of eye ball. (ii) Cornea: It is a transparent , forms anterior one- sixth of
eyeball. It helps to focus light waves as they enter eye. It is avascular , absorbs oxygen from
air. It was one of first organs to be transplanted because it lacks blood vessels. At junction of
sclera and cornea there is canal of Schlemm. From anterior chamber aqueous humour, which
is continuously produced, is drained off into canal of Schlemm and then into blood.
2. Vascular Coat:. (i) Choroid: It lies adjacent to sclera and contains blood vessels that supply
nutrients and oxygen to retina. It also contains pigmented cells that absorb light and prevent it
from reflection within eyeball. (ii) Ciliary body: It is composed of ciliary muscles and ciliary
processes which secrete aqueous humour. Ciliary muscles are smooth muscles and are of two
types: circular and meridional. Attached to ciliary body are suspensory ligaments, which are
attached to cap­sule that surrounds lens of eye. The capsule and ligaments, to­gether with
ciliary body, hold lens in place. (iii) Iris: It is a circular muscular diaphragm containing pigment
giving eye its colour. It sepa­rates aqueous humour region into anterior and posterior chambers.
It extends from cili­ary body across eyeball in front of lens. It has an opening in centre called
pupil. It contains two types of smooth muscles, circular (sphincters) and radial muscles
(dilators), of ectodermal origin. The iris controls amount of light entering eye by radial muscles
contracting in dim light and circular muscles contracting in bright light.Both of these muscles
are under control of autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation causes radial
muscles to contract and pupil to dilate, or get larger. Parasympathetic stimulation causes
circular muscles to contract and pupil to constrict.