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Course6 RainwaterHarvesting Sharma
Course6 RainwaterHarvesting Sharma
Course6 RainwaterHarvesting Sharma
Problem?
1
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches
2
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches
3
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches
4
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches
5
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches
6
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Central Themes of an Integrated Approach
(adapted from Marlow et al., 2013)
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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
No longer a question of why,
but how
8
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Barriers to Implementation
• Complex systems
• Investment in conventional approaches
• Institutional and/or technological ‘lock in effect’
• Lack of information, knowledge and understanding in applying integrated, adaptive
forms of management
• Quantification of resource efficiency
• Option identification and assessment
• No long-term vision, strategy
• Lack of political and public will
• Lack of objective and holistic evaluation methodologies
• Economics, of the monetary sort
• Practical challenges associated with day-to-day management of new and
innovative solutions
• Difficulty in accounting for non-monetary costs and benefits
• Unintended Consequences
• Predicting effects on the larger system
• Institutional Bias
Source: Arthur, 1994; Speers and Mitchell, 2000; Foxon, 2002; Kennedy et al., 2007; Wong and Brown, 2008; Brown et al., 2009; Brown and Farrelly,
2009; Brown et al., 2011; Moglia et al., 2012; Marlow et al., 2013
Office of Research and Development
9
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
An Integrated Sustainability Framework
Xue et al., 2015. Critical insights for a sustainability framework to address integrated community water
services: Technical metrics and approaches
Dimension Tool
10
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Barriers to Implementation
• Complex systems
• Investment in conventional approaches
• Institutional and/or technological ‘lock in effect’
• Lack of information, knowledge and understanding in applying integrated, adaptive
forms of management
• Quantification of resource efficiency
• Option identification and assessment
• No long-term vision, strategy
• Lack of political and public will
• Lack of objective and holistic evaluation methodologies
• Economics, of the monetary sort
• Practical challenges associated with day-to-day management of new and
innovative solutions
• Difficulty in accounting for non-monetary costs and benefits
• Unintended Consequences
• Predicting effects on the larger system
• Institutional Bias
Source: Arthur, 1994; Harremoes, 1997; Speers and Mitchell, 2000; Foxon, 2002; Kennedy et al., 2007; Wong and Brown, 2008; Brown et al., 2009;
Brown and Farrelly, 2009; Brown et al., 2011; Moglia et al., 2012; Marlow et al., 2013; Mirchi et al., 2014
Office of Research and Development
11
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Emergy Analysis – past analyses
• Water Supply – one study included distribution system, few
include infrastructure
• Wastewater – none looking at collection system or
infrastructure
• Stormwater – mostly process (e.g. wetland) specific analyses
• Whole system – nothing
12
National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Drinking Water Treatment Plant
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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Wastewater Treatment Plant
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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Base Case Results: DWTP, WWTP
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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Introduction (1)
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INTRODUCTION INTO
RAINWATER HARVESTING
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Sigiriya, Sri Lanka.
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Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. This reservoir cut into the rock was used
centuries ago to hold harvested rainwater.
http://www.itdg.org/html/technical_enquiries/docs/rainwater_harvesting.pdf
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Introduction (2)
20
Types of Rainwater Harvesting Systems
1. Roof catchments
• Simple roofwater collection system for households
• Larger systems for educational institutions, stadiums, airports, and
other facilities
• Roofwater collection systems for high-rise buildings in urbanised
areas
2. Ground catchments (man-made)
3. Rock catchments (natural, impervious outcrops)
4. Collection of storm water in urbanized catchments for
recharge
21
Typical Domestic Rainwater Harvesting
System
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Source: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rainwaterharvesting/index.html
Ground Catchment System
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Rock Catchment System
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Part 2
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Small-scale rainwater harvesting systems and
uses
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RWH in Urban Areas
In view of increasing migration to urban area and the emergence of
mega-cities in the next millennium, it is imperative that water supply
systems should be evolved to cater for such a development.
In areas with relatively high rainfall spread throughout the year, where
other water resources are scarce, RWH is an important option, for
example parts of Sri Lanka, Philippines, Indonesia, Nepal and Uganda.
29
RWH in Urban Areas (2)
31
Advantages of RWH in Urban Areas
Flood control - by greatly reducing urban runoff;
Stormwater drainage - by reducing the size and scale of
infrastructure requirements;
Firefighting and disaster relief - by providing independent
household reservoirs;
Water conservation - as less water is required from other
sources;
Reduced groundwater exploitation and subsidence - as less
groundwater is required;
Financial savings – where rainwater can be used in place of
water purchased from water vendors.
32
Limitations of RWH
The initial cost (mainly of storage tank) may prevent a
family from installing a RWH system.
The water availability is limited by the rainfall intensity
and available roof area.
Mineral-free rainwater has a flat taste, which may not be
liked by many.
The poorer segment of the population may not have a
roof suitable for rainwater harvesting.
33
Part 3
37
Design considerations for rooftop catchment
systems (2)
All gutter ends should be fitted with a wire mesh screen to
keep out leaves, etc.
The storage tank should have a tight-fitting roof that
excludes light, a manhole cover and a flushing pipe at the base
of the tank.
The design of the tank should allow for thorough scrubbing
of the inner walls and floor or tank bottom. A sloped bottom and
a provision of a sump and a drain are useful for collection and
discharge of settled grit and sediment.
Taps/faucets should be installed at 10 cm above the base of
the tank as this allows any derbis entering the tank to settle on
the bottom where it remains undisturbed, will not affect the
quality of water.
38
Factors affecting RWH system design
Rainfall quantity (mm/year)
Rainfall pattern
Collection surface area (m2)
Runoff coefficient of collection (-)
Storage capacity (m3)
Daily consumption rate (litres/capita /day)
Number of users
Cost
Alternative water sources
39
Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting
The technical feasibility of roof RWH as a primary
source of water is determined by the potential of a rainwater
to meet the demand more effectively than other
alternatives.
Often the attraction of RWH may be as a
supplementary water source to reduce the pressure on a
finite primary source or as a backup during the time of
drought or breakdown.
The total amount of water that is received in the form
of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater endowment
of that area.
The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all
the rainwater falling over an area cannot be effectively
harvested. 40
Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting
The size of supply of rainwater depends on the
amount of rainfall (R), the area of the catchment (A) and
its runoff coefficient (C).
An estimate of mean annual runoff from a given
catchment can be obtained using the equation:
S =R*A*C
Where S = Rainwater supply per annum
R = mean annual rainfall
A = Area of the catchment
C = Runoff coefficient
The actual amount of rainwater supplied will ultimately
depend on the volume of the storage tank or reservoir.
41
Catchment Area Size
The size of roof catchment is the
projected area of the roof or the
building’s footprint under the roof.
To calculate the catchment area
(A), multiply the length (L) and width
(B) of the guttered area. It is not
necessary to measure the sloping
edge of the roof.
Note that it does not matter
whether the roof is flat or peaked. It is
the “footprint” of the roof drip line that
matters.
42
43
Characteristics of Roof Types
Type Runoff Notes
coefficient
GI sheets > 0.9 Excellent quality water. Surface is smooth and
high temperatures help to sterilise bacteria
Tile 0.6 – 0.9 Good quality water from glazed tiles.
(glazed) Unglazed can harbour
mould
Contamination can exist in tile joins
Asbestos 0.8 – 0.9 New sheets give good quality water
Sheets Slightly porous so reduced runoff coefficient and
older roofs harbour moulds and even moss
Organic 0.2 Poor quality water (>200 FC/100ml)
(Thatch) Little first flush effect; High turbidity due to
dissolved organic material which does not settle
Source: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu/rwh/components2.html 44
Example 1:
For a building with a flat roof of size 10 m x 12 m in a city with the
average annual rainfall of 800 mm
45
Storage System
There are several options available for the storage of
rainwater. A variety of materials and different shapes of the
vessels have been used.
In general, there can be two basic types of storage
system:
- Underground tank or storage vessel
- Ground tank or storage vessel
The choice of the system will depend on several
technical and economic considerations like, space availability,
materials and skill available, costs of buying a new tank or
construction on site, ground conditions, local traditions for
water storage etc.
46
Storage System
The storage tank is the most expensive part of any
RWH system and the most appropriate capacity for any
given locality is affected by its cost and amount of water it is
able to supply.
In general, larger tanks are required in area with
marked wet and dry seasons, while relatively small tanks
may suffice in areas where rainfall is relatively evenly
spread throughout the year.
Field experiences show that a universal ideal tank
design does not exist. Local materials, skills and costs,
personal preference and other external factors may favour
one design over another.
47
Requirements for Storage System
A solid secure cover to keep out insects, dirt and
sunshine
A coarse inlet filter to catch leaves etc.
A overflow pipe
A manhole, sump and drain for cleaning
An extraction system that does not contaminate the
water e.g. tap/pump
A soakaway to prevent split water forming puddles
near the tank.
Additionally features
- sediment trap or other foul flush mechanism
- device to inside water level in the tank
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49
50
51
RWH Brick Jars - Uganda
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Underground lime and bricks cistern
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Rainwater Harvesting – Sri Lanka
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57
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http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/pdf/fs22.pdf 59
A wooden water tank in Hawaii, USA
Source: http://www.greenhouse.gov.au
63
Storage capacity
When using rainwater, it is important to recognize
that the rainfall is not constant through out the year;
therefore, planning the storage system with an adequate
capacity is required for constant use of rainwater, even
during the dry period.
Knowledge of the rainfall quantity and seasonality,
the area of the catchment surface and volume of the
storage tank, and quantity and period of use required for
water supply purposes is critical.
There are two commonly used method to estimate
storage requirements.
64
Storage capacity
Method 1 – Storage required for dry period
A rough estimate of the maximum storage
requirement can be made based on the (i) per capita
consumption (ii) no of users and (iii) length of the longest
dry period
65
Storage capacity
Method 1 – Storage required for dry period
This simple method assumes sufficient rainfall
and catchment area which is adequate, and is therefore
only applicable in areas where this is the situation.
It is a method for acquiring rough estimates of tank
size.
66
Storage capacity
Method 2 – Based on rainfall and water demand pattern
A better estimate of storage requirement can be made
using the mass curve technique based on rainfall and
water demand pattern.
67
Storage capacity
Example 2:
Calculate the size of the storage tank required for a school
with 65 students and 5 staff, assuming average water
consumption of 5 litres/day.
Roof area = 200 m2.
Assume runoff coefficient of 0.9.
The rainfall pattern in the area is given in the table below
120
100
Water (m3)
80
60
40
20
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
71
Mass curve for calculation of required
storage capacity
140
120 Harvested Water demand
Cumulative (m )
100
3
80
60
40
20
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
72
Storage capacity calculations
(b) Rainfall pattern - 2
Month Rainfall
mm 140
Jan 120
120
Feb 100
Mar 100 100
Rainfall (mm)
Apr 115 80
May 60
June
40
July
Aug 20
Sep 0
Oct 55 J F M A M J J A S O N D
Nov 100 Months
Dec 120
73
Calculation of required storage capacity (2)
Month Rainfall Rainfall Water Cum. Rainfall Cum. Water Difference
harvested Demand harvested CH Demand CD CH - CD
mm m3 m3 m3 m3 m3
J 120 21.6 10.65 21.6 10.65 10.95
F 100 18 10.65 39.6 21.3 18.3
M 100 18 10.65 57.6 31.95 25.65
A 115 20.7 10.65 78.3 42.6 35.7
M 0 10.65 78.3 53.25 25.05
J 0 10.65 78.3 63.9 14.4
J 0 10.65 78.3 74.55 3.75
A 0 10.65 78.3 85.2 -6.9
S 0 0 10.65 78.3 95.85 -17.55
O 55 9.9 10.65 88.2 106.5 -18.3
N 100 18 10.65 106.2 117.15 -10.95
D 120 21.6 10.65 127.8 127.8 0
75
Gutters (2)
A general rule of thumb is that 1 cm2 of guttering is
required for every m2 of roof area.
Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be
made using a variety of materials:
- Locally available material such as plain galvanised
iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to required
shapes.
- Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be
readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two equal
semi-circular channels.
- Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
- Wood or plastic
76
Gutters (3)
Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off
when loaded with water.
The way in which gutters are fixed depends on the
construction of the house;
- it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets into the
walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some
method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.
77
Gutters - Shapes and Configurations
Gutter configurations
78
Gutters - Shapes and Configurations
79
Gutters and Hangers
80
Shade cloth guttering
http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/pubs/wp/wp55/8gutter.html 82
83
Gutter sizing
Recommended gutter widths for use in humid tropics
Gutter width (mm) Roof area (m2) served by 1
gutter
55 13
60 17
65 21
70 25
75 29
80 34
85 40
90 46
95 54
100 66
50 mm 29 42 60 85
Cross 47 39 36 38
sectional area
(cm2)
Source: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rwh
86
Guide to sizing of gutters and downpipes for
rainwater harvesting systems in tropical regions
Source: www.sopac.org
17 60 40
25 70 50
34 80 50
46 90 63
66 100 63
128 125 75
208 150 90
87
First flush system (1)
Debris, dirt, dust and droppings will collect on the roof
of a building or other collection area.
When the first rains arrive, this unwanted matter will
be washed into the tank. This will cause contamination of the
water and the quality will be deteriorated.
Many RWH systems therefore incorporate a system
for diverting this ‘first flush’ or ‘foul flush” water so that it
does not enter the storage tank.
Several first flush system are in use. The simplest one
is a manually operated arrangement whereby the inlet pipe
is moved away from the tank inlet and then replaced again
once the initial first flush has been diverted.
88
First flush system (2)
For an average roof catchment it is suggested that
the first 20–25 L could be diverted or discarded.
First flush devices should be regarded as an
additional barrier to reduce contamination and should not
be used to replace normal maintenance activities designed
to keep roof catchments reasonably clean.
The inlet pipe to all rainwater tanks should be easily
detachable so that, when necessary, the tank can be
bypassed. Manual detachment could be used as an
alternative to an engineered first flush device, although the
level of control will not be as good.
89
First flush system (3)
91
First flush system (5)
92
First flush
system (6)
93
Device for separating rainwater from roof-
accumulated impurities
94
Roof catchment system with filter and
storage tank
95
Storage tank & first flush - Malaysia
96
Part 4
97
Quality of Rainwater (1)
98
Quality of Rainwater (2)
The extraction system (e.g. taps/faucets, pumps) must
not contaminate the stored water.
The first run off from the roof should be discarded to
prevent entry of impurities from the roof.
Some devices and good practices have been suggested
to store or divert the first foul flush away from the
storage tank.
In case of difficulties in the rejection of first flow,
cleaning of the roof and gutter at the beginning of the
rainy season and their regular maintenance are very
important to ensure better quality of rainwater.
99
Quality of Rainwater - Bacteriological
Dust from the soil, and droppings of birds and animals
could be the source of contamination by the bacteria.
100
Disinfecting rainwater
• Rainwater is generally of very good chemical quality. However,
it may not meet WHO drinking water quality standards,
specifically microbiological quality standards, hence some
disinfection is recommended.
• Rainwater can be used for drinking, if it is clear, has no or very
little taste or smell and is from well maintained system.
101
Disinfecting rainwater (2)
102
Operation and maintenance
The simple operation and maintenance of RWH systems
is one of the most attractive aspects of the technology.
The extent of maintenance required by a basic privately
owned household RWH system includes
- Regular cleaning of the roof tops and gutters
- Frequent cleaning of storage tanks
- Inspection of gutters and feeder pipes and valve
chambers to detect and repair leaks
When ground catchment is used for collection and/or
ground tank is used for storage, proper fencing of both is
recommended to keep the children and animals away, thus
avoiding contamination and risks of falling into the tank.
103
104
One example of a flat screen
over the gutter to keep large
debris out of the tank.
A problem with gutter screens is
that they require a lot of
maintenance to keep leaves and
debris from piling up and
blocking the screens.
Also, dirt on the leaves can still
be washed into the storage tank.
105
Leaf Eater®/Leaf Beater®/Leaf Catcha®
107
Tank desludging and cleaning (2)
109
Thai Jar
Khon Kaen, Thailand
110
Source: http://www.ircsa.org
Rainwater Harvesting - Australia
111
Rainwater Harvesting - Australia
In Australia the use of domestic rainwater tanks is an
established and relatively common practice, particularly in rural
and remote areas.
Between 1994 and 2001, 16% of Australian households
used rainwater tanks, with 13% of households using tanks as
their main source of drinking water.
7% of the capital city households and 34% of non-capital
city households have rainwater tanks.
In a 1996 South Australian survey, 28% of Adelaide
households used rainwater tanks as the primary source of
drinking water compared to 82% households in the rest of the
State.
Source: Guidance on use of rainwater tank. En Health, Australian Government 2004
112
113
Rainwater
harvesting system,
in Patan,
Nepal
1 - Overhead tank
2 - Downtake PVC pipe from roof
3 - First phase storage drum
4 - Overflow goes into underwater
tank
5 - Pump to lift water to overhead
tank
6 - Sediment discharge tap
7 - 50,000 litre underground
ferrocement tank
114
Source: Nepali Times (16-22 August 2002)
Rainwater Harvesting in Tokyo
115
Rainwater Harvesting from Domed Stadium
in Japan
116
Source: Zaizen et al. (1999)
Rainwater Harvesting from Domed Stadium
in Japan
_________________________________________________________
Stadium Tokyo Fukuoka Nagoya
_________________________________________________________
Catchment area
for storage (m2) 16,000 25,900 35,000
Capacity of
detention tank (m3) 1000 1800 1500
118
Rainwater Harvesting in Presidential Estate,
New Delhi, India
121
Water Supply at Millennium Dome, London
122
Socio-cultural Considerations (1)
123
Socio-cultural Considerations (2)
124
Public Awareness and Demonstration
125
126
Bibliography
Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization. An Environmentally Sound
Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide
for Decision-Makers. IETC-UNEP, Japan.
Rainwater catchment systems for Household Water Supply (1991).
Environmental Sanitation Reviews No No 32. ENSIC, Bangkok, Thailand.
UNEP-IETC (1999) Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Efficient Water Use in Urban Areas - Innovative Ways of Finding Water for
Cities. (8 to 10 June 1999), Kobe, Japan.
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment
Systems for Domestic Supply. IT Publications, London
127
Web Resources on RWH
International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association
http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/ircsa/
American Rainwater Catchment Association
http://www.arcsa-usa.org/
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), India
http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org
Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering,
University of Warwick, UK
http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rwh/index.html
Chennai Metrowater, India
http://www.chennaimetrowater.com/rainwaterfaqs.htm
Rainwater Partnership
http://www.rainwaterpartnership.org/
128
Web Resources on RWH (2)
Lanka Rainwater Harvesting Forum
http://www.rainwaterharvesting.com
Intenational Rainwater Harvesting Alliance
http://www.irha-h2o.org/
Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP)
http://www.gharainwater.org/
The Web of Rain
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/rain-web.html
129