9.1 - PLANT STRUCTURE AND GROWTH (NEW 9.

3-
Growth in Plants)
(Allott & Mindorff. Biology Course Companion, 2nd ed. Pgs. 422 – 428)

Growth ring

Vascular
ray

Heartwood
Secondary
xylem
Sapwood

Vascular cambium

Secondary phloem
Bark
Layers of periderm
 9.1.3. – Explain the relationship between the distribution of tissues in
the leaf and the function of these tissues.
• Angiosperms contain three basic types of tissue  These tissues have been formed
from meristermatic tissue.  This tissue is composed of small cells that are similar to
stem cells in animals.  When the meristematic cells divide one cell specializes while
the other remains meristematic.
TYPE OF TISSUE DESCRIPTION
Dermal Tissue A _______________ outer coating that protects the plant from harmful agents
such as pathogens. The dermal tissue can also help ____________________________
and often contains specialized structures for specific purposes.
Ground Tissue This tissue is composed of thin walled cells that play a role in ________________,
_________________, ____________________ and _________________________________.
Vascular Tissue This tissue consists of _______________ and ________________. They are
responsible for conducting _______________________________________________________
along with_______________________________. They also provide ____________________
and ____________________ for the plant.
Xylem – transports water and dissolved minerals ______________________________
into shoots.
Phloem – ___________________________ made in mature leaves to the roots and
parts of the root system, such as leaves and fruits.
 9.1.3. Continued.
• The following diagram shows the distribution of tissues in leaves.  Based on the
description of the types of tissues found in plants in the previous table we can explore
the relationship between the location of the different types of tissue in leaves and their
functions.
 9.1.3. Continued.
TISSUE LOCATION & STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Upper Not a tissue......a waxy covering on the surface of Aids in reducing water loss by decreasing transpiration
Cuticle the leaf and protects against insect invasion.
 
Upper This tissue is made up of a thin layer of cells This tissue also aids in reducing water allows light to pass
Epidermis which do not contain chloroplasts and they are through to the palisade layer, prevents gas exchange and
  transparent.  Found below the cuticle. secrete the waxy cuticle that covers the leaf.

Palisade The area is called the palisade mesophyll.  A The palisade layer is responsible for photosynthesis Due to
Layer densely packed area of long cells which contain its location in the upper portion of the leaf maximum light
  high numbers of chloroplasts for can be absorbed.
photosynthesis.  It is located near the top of the
leaf (and under the upper epidermis) for
absorption of sunlight
Spongy This area is known as the spongy mesophyll The spongy mesophyll is located below the palisade
Layer and it contains loosely packed cells with spaces mesophyll and the spaces between the cells allow for the
  of air in between.  The cells contain only a few exchange of gases.  Some photosynthesis also occurs here.
chloroplasts.
Lower This tissue contains stomata or stomal pores Located just below the spongy mesophyll to allow for
Epidermis which are openings on the bottom surface of optimum ____________________________________________.  The lower
  the lower epidermis.  Each stoma is surrounded surface of the leaf receives less light and heat which helps
by a guard cell that controls the opening and prevent water loss from the plant.
closing of the stoma.
Veins Distributed throughout the leaf often near the _____________________ the products of photosynthesis and raw
middle in order to be near all cells. materials
Lower Not a tissue......a waxy covering on the surface of Aids in ____________________________________ by decreasing
Cuticle the leaf.  Usually thinner than the upper cuticle. transpiration and protects against insect invasion
 9.1.4. – Identify modifications of roots, stems, and leaves for different
functions: bulbs, stem tubers, storage roots, and tendrils.
• Taproot consists on a large vertical root that produces many smaller lateral roots. It is a
firm anchor. Try to pull up a dandelion! Some taproots, adapted to arid environments
“tap” water far below the ground. Other taproots, like carrots, turnips, and sugar beets
are modifed roots that store exceptionally large amount of food. These reserves are
consumed when it flowers and produces fruit, as such these root crops are harvested
before they flower.

(a) Prop roots (c) “Strangling” aerial

(b) Storage roots
roots

Figure 35.4a–e (d) Buttress roots (e) Pneumatophores

 9.1.4. Continued
• Modified stems with diverse functions have evolved in many plants, ie. rhizomes, tubers, and
bulbs
• Rhizomes, such as the edible base of the ginger plant, are horizontal stems that grow
underground.
• tubers like the white potato are swollen ends of rhizomes, specialized for storing food. The
“eyes” around a potato are clusters of auxiliary buds that mark the nodes.
• Bubles are vertical, underground leaves/shoots consisting mostly of the swollen base of leaves
that store food. This can be seen in the many layers of an onion bulb cut lengthwise.
Stolons. Shown here on a
(a) strawberry plant, stolons
are horizontal stems that grow
along the surface. These “runners”
enable a plant to reproduce
asexually, as plantlets form at
nodes along each runner.
Storage leaves

Rhizomes. The edible base

Stem
Root
Bulbs. Bulbs are vertical,
(b) underground shoots consisting
mostly of the enlarged bases
of leaves that store food. You
can see the many layers of
modified leaves attached
Figure 35.5a–d to the short stem by slicing an
onion bulb lengthwise.
(d) of this ginger plant is an example
of a rhizome, a horizontal stem
that grows just below the surface
or emerges and grows along the
surface.
Node
Tubers. Tubers, such as these Rhizome
(c) red potatoes, are enlarged
ends of rhizomes specialized
for storing food. The “eyes” Root
arranged in a spiral pattern
around a potato are clusters
of axillary buds that mark
the nodes.
 9.1.4. Continued.
• Although most leaves are specialized for photosynthesis, some plants have leaves that
have become adapted by evolution for other functions.
• Tendrils of pea plants are modified leaflets that are used to cling to supports.

(a) Tendrils. The tendrils by which this

pea plant clings to a support are
modified leaves. After it has “lassoed”
a support, a tendril forms a coil that
brings the plant closer to the support.
Tendrils are typically modified leaves,
but some tendrils are modified stems,
as in grapevines.

(b) Spines. The spines of cacti, such

as this prickly pear, are actually
leaves, and photosynthesis is
carried out mainly by the fleshy
green stems.

(c) Storage leaves. Most succulents,

such as this ice plant, have leaves
modified for storing water.
(d) Bracts. Red parts of the
poinsettia are often mistaken
for petals but are actually
modified leaves called bracts
that surround a group of
flowers. Such brightly colored
leaves attract pollinators.
(e) Reproductive leaves. The leaves
of some succulents, such as Kalanchoe
daigremontiana, produce adventitious
plantlets, which fall off the leaf and
Figure 35.6a–e take root in the soil.
 9.1.5. – State that dicotyledonous plants have apical and lateral
meristems.
• Meristems generate for new organs throughout the lifetime of a plant.
• Most plants grow for as long as they live, this is called indeterminate growth.
Although, certain plant organs, like leaves and flowers show determine growth.

• Apical meristems are found at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots,
supplying cells for the plant to grow longer.
• This primary growth allows the plant’s roots to penetrate deeper into the soil
and for the leaves to increase their exposure to light and carbon dioxide.
• Primary growth occurs in both nonwoody plants and woody plants.
• Secondary growth is a continued thickening of roots and shoots from earlier
primary growth.
• Secondary growth is the result of lateral meristems, which are cells dividing
along the length of roots and shoots.
• Lateral meristems replace the epidermis with a secondary dermal tissue, like
bark, that is tougher and thicker, adding layers of vascular tissue.
• (Campbell, Reece, & Mitchell. Biology, 5 th ed.)
 9.1.5. – State that dicotyledonous plants have apical and lateral meristems.
• Meristems generate cells for new Cortex Vascular cylinder
organs throughout the lifetime of a
Epidermis
plant.
• Most plants grow for as long as they Key Zone of
live, this is called indeterminate Dermal
Root hair
maturation

growth. Although, certain plant Ground

organs, like leaves and flowers show Vascular

determinate growth.
• Apical meristems are found at the tips
of roots and in the buds of shoots, Zone of
elongation
supplying cells for the plant to grow
longer.
• This primary growth allows the plant’s
roots to penetrate deeper into the Apical
meristem
soil and for the leaves to increase Zone of cell
division
their exposure to light and carbon Root cap
dioxide.
• Primary growth occurs in both
Figure 35.12 100 m
nonwoody plants and woody plants.
• (Campbell, Reece, & Mitchell. Biology, 5 th ed.)
 9.1.5. Continued.
• Primary and secondary growth occur Terminal bud
Bud scale

simultaneously but in different

locations. Axillary buds

• Secondary growth is a continued Leaf scar

thickening of roots and shoots from This year’s growth

Node
Stem
earlier primary growth. (one year old)
Internode
• Secondary growth is the result of
lateral meristems, which are cells One-year-old side
branch formed

dividing along the length of roots from axillary bud

near shoot apex

and shoots.
• Lateral meristems replace the Leaf scar

Last year’s growth

epidermis with a secondary dermal (two years old)
Scars left by terminal
bud scales of previous

tissue, like bark, that is tougher and winters

thicker, adding layers of vascular

tissue. Leaf scar

• The lateral meristem develops

Growth of two
years ago (three
years old)
between the xylem and phloem and Figure 35.11
the cells it produces develops into
more of these tissues.
• (Campbell, Reece, & Mitchell. Biology, 5th ed.)
 9.1.5. Continued.
• An overview of primary and secondary growth

Primary growth in stems

Shoot apical
meristems
Epidermis
(in buds)
Cortex
In woody plants,
there are lateral Primary phloem
meristems that
add secondary Primary xylem
growth, increasing Vascular
the girth of cambium
Lateral
roots and stems. Pith
meristems
Cork
cambium

Apical meristems Secondary growth in stems

add primary growth, Periderm
or growth in length. Cork
Pith cambium
The cork
cambium adds
secondary
Primary dermal tissue.
xylem Cortex
Primary
phloem
Root apical Secondary The vascular
meristems xylem cambium adds
Secondary
secondary
phloem
Vascular cambium xylem and
phloem.
Figure. 35.10
 9.1.6. – Compare growth due to apical and lateral meristems in
dicotyledonous plants.
• There are two types of lateral meristems.  The first type is produced by the vascular cambium and it
produces secondary phloem and secondary xylem, a major component in wood.  The second type of
lateral meristems occurs in the cork cambium located within the bark of a plant.  It produces the cork
cells of the outer bark of woody plants.
• (http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/sdosman/Higher%20level%20BIO/plantstopic9.1.htm, 17042012)

• Primary & secondary growth of a stem.

1 1 In the youngest part of the stem, you can see the primary
(a) Primary and secondary growth plant body, as formed by the apical meristem during primary
in a two-year-old stem growth. The vascular cambium is beginning to develop.
2 As primary growth continues to elongate the stem, the portion
Pith of the stem formed earlier the same year has already started
Epidermis its secondary growth. This portion increases in girth as fusiform
Primary xylem
Cortex Vascular cambium initials of the vascular cambium form secondary xylem to the
Primary Primary phloem inside and secondary phloem to the outside.
Cortex
phloem Epidermis The ray initials of the vascular cambium give rise to the xylem
Vascular 2 3
3 Phloem ray th and phloem rays.
G row
cambium Xylem
4 As the diameter of the vascular cambium increases, the
Primary ray
secondary phloem and other tissues external to the cambium
xylem
Pith cannot keep pace with the expansion because the cells no
longer divide. As a result, these tissues, including the
Primary epidermis, rupture. A second lateral meristem, the cork
xylem cambium, develops from parenchyma cells in the cortex. The
Secondary xylem cork cambium produces cork cells, which replace the epidermis.
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem 5 In year 2 of secondary growth, the vascular cambium adds to
Primary phloem Cork the secondary xylem and phloem, and the cork cambium
Periderm
4 First cork cambium produces cork.
(mainly cork th 6
cambia Grow As the diameter of the stem continues to increase, the
6
and cork) outermost tissues exterior to the cork cambium rupture and
Primary slough off from the stem.
phloem 7 Cork cambium re-forms in progressively deeper layers of the
cortex. When none of the original cortex is left, the cork
Secondary
Secondary cambium develops from parenchyma cells in the
phloem
Vascular xylem (two secondary phloem.
cambium years of 8 Each cork cambium and the tissues it produces form a
Secondary layer of periderm.
production)
xylem Vascular cambium 9 Bark consists of all tissues exterior to the vascular
Primary xylem Secondary phloem 9 Bark
cambium.
Pith 5 Most recent 7 Cork 8 Layers of
cork cambium periderm
 Secondary phloem
Vascular cambium Cork
Secondary Late wood cambium Periderm
xylem Early wood Cork

(b) Transverse section

of a three-year-
old stem (LM)
Xylem ray
Bark

0.5 mm 0.5 mm
Figure 35.18b
 9.1.7. – Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the
control of plant growth. (9.3.4., 9.3.5. & 9.3.6.)
• The growth of a shoot towards light is called positive phototropism (growth away from light is
negative phototropism).
• The shoot of a (grass) seedling is enclosed in a sheath called a colepitle which grows straight upward
if the seedling is kept in the dark or if it has light on it from all sides.
• If the coleoptile is illuminated from one side, it will curve toward the light.
• This happens because of a different growth of cells on opposite sides of the coleoptile. Cells on the
darker side grow faster than the cells on the brighter side (Fig. 39.1).
• Auxin is the term used to describe any chemical that promotes the elongation of coleoptiles.
• It is found in the embryo of the seed, meristems of apical buds, and young leaves.
• Auxim is important for several things such as: stem elongation root growth and phototropism.
• IAA (indoleacetic acid) is the natural auxin that has been removed from plants.
• (Campbell, Reece, & Mitchell. Biology, 5 th ed.)

• Causes transport of hydrogen ions from cytoplasm to cell wall;

• Decrease in pH breaks bonds between cell wall fibres;
• Makes cell walls flexible/extensible/plastic/softens cell walls;
• Auxin makes cells grow;
• Shoot tip semse direction of (brightest) light;
• Auxin moved to side of stem with least light/darker side
• Causes cells on dark side to elongate/cells on dark side grow faster;
• (http://canada.canacad.ac.jp/BiologyIBHL1/3089, 17042012)
9.1.7. Continued. (9.3.4., 9.3.5. & 9.3.6.)
Tropism Cont. – read the paragraphs on the following slides
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Tropism Cont. – read the paragraphs on the following slides
• Auxins and phototropism
• Tropisms are generally de ned as growth or movement to directional external stimuli. Tropisms may be positive
(towards the stimulus) or negative (away from the stimulus). Common stimuli for plant tropisms include
chemicals, gravity, touch, and light. Let’s consider light as a stimulus. Phototropism means plant growth in
response to light. Generally, plant stems exhibit positive phototropism, and plant roots demonstrate negative
phototropism (see Fig. below). It is easy to demonstrate plant tropisms in the laboratory.
• Fig.-The effect of sunlight on a stem shoot. There is a
• higher concentration of auxin on side B, creating
• increased elongation of these cells and thus growth
• towards the light.
• The importance of phototropism to a plant is clear. If
• an area is crowded with plants, it is essential for
• seedlings to grow towards the sunlight so that photosynthesis can occur effciently. Auxins are plant hormones that
cause the positive phototropism of plant shoots and seedlings.

x
Tropism Cont. – read the paragraphs on the following slides
• Auxins are found in the embryo of seeds, the meristems of apical buds (shoot apex),
and young leaves. These hormones only work on plant cells that have auxin receptors.
Auxins appear to increase the flexibility of plant cell walls in young developing shoots.
This enables cell elongation on the side of the shoot necessary to cause growth
towards the light. This explains the response to light illustrated in the fig. above.
• This growth response does not appear to be the result of an increased production of
auxin on one side of the shoot. Rather, it seems to be caused by a redistribution of
available auxin, especially to the side of the stem away from the light source. In the
case of phototropism, auxin is actually produced in all the cells in this region of the
plant. Auxin efflux pumps (specialized membrane proteins) move the auxins out of the
cells closer to the light, using ATP as the energy source. This pumping action creates a
high concentration of auxin in the space between the cells. The result is a high
concentration of auxin in the intercellular space and a relatively low concentration
within the adjacent cell. Because of this, auxin moves down the concentration gradient
from the intercellular space into the adjacent cell. The entry of auxin into a cell is
called auxin influx. This mechanism of auxin movement between adjacent cells
continues until there is a greater concentration of auxin on the stem’s dark side. The
result is a greater elongation of cells on the stem side away from the light and,
therefore, curvature towards the light source. The speci c plant auxin that causes this
described action is indoleacetic acid (IAA).
 Tropism Cont. – read the paragraphs on the following slides
• The elongation of the cells is caused by an expansion of the cell walls on the side away from
the light source. The key step in this expansion is when auxin combines with a receptor that
targets species transcriptional repressors of auxin-responsive genes. The result of this altered
gene expression is shown in fig. below.
• Figure - The mechanism that
• causes stems to bend towards
• light as a result of the influence
• of auxin.

• NOW, using the previous three

• slides, in your own words
• summarize the sequence of
• events in the stem causing it to
• bend towards a light source.

• x