‫جامعة وادي النيل – كلية الهندسة والتقنية‬

‫قسم الهندسة الكهربائية وااللكترونية‬

‫المستوي الخامس بكالريوس – الفصل الدراسي‬

‫التاسع‬
‫‪Engineering Electronics & Design‬‬
‫الكترونيات هندسية وتصميم‬
‫‪Lecture2‬‬

‫‪Dr. Mugahid Omer Hajeltoum‬‬

 Noise Figure

• In Sect. 2.3.4 we showed that the noise figure of a bipolar

transistor with a given collector current IC,A is minimum if
the effective source resistance between the base and the
emitter terminal reaches its optimum value.
• Figure bellow shows the plot of F(f) using a numeric
example. When f < f1 < fg(1/f )
• the 1/f noise dominates and F(f) is inversely proportional to
the frequency; for f > f2 > fT /√β
• the noise figure F(f ) is proportional to f2.

2
Noise Figure

3
Noise Figure

4
 Noise Figure

• RB is the base spreading resistance and β the current gain

of the transistor.
• For the collector currents IC,A ≈ 0.1 . . . 1mA, which are
typical of integrated high-frequency circuits,
• the source resistance for β ≈ 100 is in the region Rgopt ≈
260 . . . 2600. With
• larger collector currents, Rgopt can be further reduced, e.g.
to 50 at IC,A = 23mA and RB = 10,
• but the noise figure reaches only a local minimum as shown
in contour Fig. 2.52.
5
 Noise Figure
Minimizing the noise figure:
•noise figure reaches a minimum under certain conditions; the
optimum operating point current IC,Aopt can be taken directly
from the respective Rg plot. This is presented more clearly in
Fig. bellow which shows the contours of the noise figure using
the following equation in a log-log diagram

6
Noise Figure

7
 Noise Figure

• In impedance matching at the input side by means of a

terminating resistance as shown in Fig. 27.2a, the effective
source resistance has the value Rg,eff = Rg||R/2 =ZW/2 = 25
for each of the two transistors in the differential amplifier
due to the parallel connection of the external resistances Rg
= ZW and the internal terminating resistance R = 2ZW
• It is thus clearly lower than the optimum source resistance
Rgopt ≈ 260 . . . 2600.

8
 Noise Figure
• Furthermore, the noise of the terminating resistance causes
the noise figure to become relatively high.
• With impedance matching at the input side by means of a
common-base circuit as shown in Fig. 27.2b, the effective
source resistance has the value Rg,eff = Rg = ZW = 50;
here, too, the noise figure is comparably high.
• For impedance matching with reactive components or strip
lines, the internal resistance Rg of the signal source can be
matched to the input resistance ri of the transistor by
means of a loss-free and noise-free matching network.

9
Noise Figure

10
Noise Figure

11
 Noise Figure
• if we disregard the base spreading resistance RB, then ri =
rBE. For the effective source resistance Rg,eff between the
base and emitter terminals this means that Rg,eff = rBE. For
rBE = βVT /IC,A and Rgopt the following relationship is obtained
with RB = 0:

• Thus, with impedance matching, the effective source

resistance is higher than the optimum source resistance by
a factor of √β ≈ 10. This might make the noise figure lower
than that in the configurations with a terminating resistance
or a common-base circuit, but it is still clearly higher than
the optimum noise figure.
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 Noise Figure
• The optimum noise figure is only obtained when noise matching is
performed instead of power matching.
• This means that the internal resistance Rg = ZW of the signal
source is not matched to ri = rBE but to Rgopt = rBE/√β.
• Conversely, the input resistance of the (noise) matched amplifier
is no longer ZW but ZW √β. This leads to the input reflection factor

• standing wave ratio (SWR):

13
 Noise Figure
• In most applications this is not acceptable.
• Therefore, a compromise between power and noise
matching is used in most practical cases where a low noise
figure is of importance.
• Power matching is generally used if the noise figure is of no
importance.
• Above f = fT /√β ≈ fT /10 the optimum source resistance
decreases, as can be seen from the equation forRgopt,RF .

14
 Noise Figure
• This does not mean that the matching methods Fig. 27.2 can
achieve a lower noise figure in this range. FactorRg,eff /Rgopt does
go down
• but the minimum noise figure increases as the equation for Fopt,RF
shows.

• We will not examine this range more closely as the noise model
for bipolar transistors with a transit frequency above 10 GHz as
used in Sect. 2.3.4 will only allow qualitative statements in this
case

15
 Noise Figure

• The range f > fT /10 is then entirely in the GHz range and
some secondary effects, such as the correlation between
the noise sources of the transistor, which were disregarded,
become significant, and the optimum source impedance is
no longer real.

16
 Noise Figure
Example:
•With the help of circuit simulation we have determined the
noise figure of the different circuit versions for an integrated
amplifier with the transistor parameters in Fig. 4.5 on page
274.
•Owing to the symmetry, we can restrict the calculations to
one of the two input transistors; Fig. 27.3 shows the
corresponding circuits.
•We use a transistor of size 10 and a bias current of IC,A =
1mA. In the common-base circuit according to Fig. 27.3c,
•we reduce the bias current to 520 mA in order to achieve
impedance matching to ZW = 50.

17
 Conditions for Impedance Matching

• Figure bellow shows a transistor with matching networks

and the corresponding reflection factors at various
positions.
• Since these points are fully matched, the reflection factors
at the signal source and the load are zero
• The matching network at the input side transforms the
reflection factor of the signal source from zero to rg at the
transistor input where it meets the input reflection factor r1
of the transistor

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Conditions for Impedance Matching

19
 Conditions for Impedance Matching
• Similarly, the matching network at the transistor output
transforms the reflection factor of the load from zero to rL
which meets the output reflection factor r2 of the transistor.
• For two-sided impedance matching, the respective
reflection factors must be conjugate complex:

• The related impedances are also conjugate complex:

20
 Reflection Factors of the Transistors
• The reflection factors r1 and r2 of the transistor depend on
rL and rg due to the reverse transmission (see Fig. bellow).
For the transistor, including the circuitry for setting the
operating point, the following is true:

21
 Reflection Factors of the Transistors

• With a load with reflection factor rL connected to the

output, the input reflection factor r1 is determined by
inserting the condition a2 = b2rL from Fig. 27.8a and solving
the equation for r1 = b1/a1.
• The output reflection factor r2 with a source with reflection
• factor rg connected to the input is calculated by inserting
the condition a1 = b1rg from Fig. 27.8b and solving the
equation for r2 = b2/a2. This leads to:

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Reflection Factors of the Transistors

Without reverse transmission (S12 = 0),

there is no interdependence
the reflection factors are
r1 = S11
r2 = S22.
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 Calculating Impedance Matching

The reflection factors rg and rL of the matched condition are

obtained through elaborate calculations

he negative sign applies to B1 > 0 or B2 > 0 and the positive sign to B1

< 0 or B2 < 0.

The parameters are:

24
 Calculating Matching Networks

There are three types of matching:

•Transformer matching
•LC matching
•Transmission line matching

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 Calculating Matching Networks

Transformer matching:

•RF transformers can be used produce very wideband impedance

matching.
•The main limitations are
− The restricted range of available impedances (due to the
terns-ratios being limited)
− The frequency limitations on transformers

26
 Calculating Matching Networks

LC matching:

•LC results in a relatively narrow bandwidth match

•LC matching is very practical at frequencies from 30MHz to
300MHz
•LC matching permits easy tuning of the match to allow for device
variation.

27
 Calculating Matching Networks

Transmission line matching:

•By using a transmission line of the required length and

characteristic impedance, the required composit match can be
obtained.
•Such match can be applied at frequencies above about 150 MHz.
•It is difficult to tune the length and characteristic impedance of a
transmission line once constructed.

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 Choice of components and Q value

•Many capacitors are not suitable for RF applications, as their self

resonance frequency is below the required operating frequency.
•For power applications, inductors with ferrite core may not be
suitable as their losses may be too high.
•For a simple parallel network, like the Pi network, the circulating
current in a resonator is approximately Q times the external current
•The higher the Q the higher the stress on the components
•A high Q value can also cause the matching network to drift out
of match, is the components change due to temperature
•In general a Q value as low as possible is desirable.

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 LC matching

• LC matching is very practical for power amplifiers from 30 to

300 MHz
• Because it is easy to tune the matching network using variable
capacitors, these LC matching networks are normally used by
the manufacturers to determine the input and output impedance
of the devices.

30
 LC matching

• The Pi matching network is very useful for matching high

impedance source to 50Ω loads.
• For high power solid-state devices, the impedance values
become impractical with very large capacitors and very small
inductors
• To obtain the component values, firstly decide on a Q value for
the matching network
• The Q value will effect the bandwidth, harmonic attenuation and
component stress.
• For the Pi network the input impedance needs to be a parallel
network.
• So that, a series to parallel transformation may need to be
applied before the network evaluation.
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 LC Matching
• Parallel transformation may need to be applied as shown below
RD+JXD transformed into RP in parallel with XP
• Pi matching network with 50Ω is applied bellow for AN267

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Impedance Matching using the Smith
Chart

33
Series Matching

34
Shunt Matching

35
 Example

Normalized load
•Zin’=1
•ZL’=2+2J 36
Example

37
Example

38
Example

39