EET427

Introduction to
INDUSTRIAL Industrial Control
ELECTRONIC System
CONTROL
 Introduction
Term industrial control – used to define this type of system, which automatically monitors manufacturing
process being executed and takes appropriate corrective action if the operation is not performing properly

Because many modern factory machines are automated, the technicians who install, troubleshoot, and
repair them need to be highly trained. To perform effectively, these individuals must understand the
elements, operational theory and terminology associated with industrial control system

Industrial control theory encompasses many fields, but uses the same basic principles whether controlling the
position of an object, the speed of a motor, or the temperature and pressure of a manufacturing process.

The Reason For Using Industrial Automatic Control

• Reduced overall manufacturing costs
• Computational capabilities
• Fast response time
• Reduced equipment size and cost
• Environmental safety for operating personnel
• Prompt emergency recognition and reaction
• General convenience
 Industrial Control Classification
Industrial Control

Motion and Process Control Open and closed-loop system

Closed-loop
Motion Control Process Control Open-loop system system
• Batch Process
• Continuous Process
 Motion Control
A motion control system is an automatic control system that controls the physical motion or position of an
object.

There are three characteristics that are common to all motion control systems.

(i) First - motion control devices control the position, speed, acceleration, or deceleration of a mechanical
object.
(ii) Second - the motion or position of the object being controlled is measured.
(iii) Third - motion devices typically respond to input commands within fractions of a second, rather than
seconds or minutes, as in process control.

Hence, motion control systems are faster than process control systems

Example : CNC machine tool equipment, printing presses, office copiers, packaging equipment
 Process Control
In process control, one or more variables are regulated during the manufacturing of a product. These
variables may include temperature, pressure, flow rate, liquid and solid level, pH, or humidity. Process
control systems are divided into two categories, batch and continuous

(i) Batch Process

Batch processing is a sequence of timed operations executed on the product being manufactured.
Also known as sequence process
Example : Cookie machine

(ii) Continuous Process

In the continuous process category, one or more operations are being performed as the product is being
passed through a process. Raw material are continuously entering and leaving each process step
Example : Producing paper, wastewater treatment, nuclear power production, oil refining and natural gas
distribution through pipe lines
Batch Process
• First, the oven is turned on to the desired temperature.
• Next, the required ingredients in proper quantities are
dispensed into the sealed mixing chamber.
• A large blender then begins to mix the contents.
• After a few minutes, vanilla is added, and the mixing
process continues.
• After a prescribed period of time, the dough is the proper
consistency, the blender stops turning, and the compressor
turns on to force air into the mixing chamber.
• When the air pressure reaches a certain point, the conveyor
belt turns on
• The pressurized air forces the dough through outlet jets
onto the belt. The dough balls become fully baked as they
pass through the oven.
• The cookies cool as the belt carries them to the packaging
machine.
Continuous Process
• Water, temperature, and speed are constantly
monitored and regulated as the pulp is placed on
screens, fed through rollers, and gradually transformed
into a finished paper product.
• The continuous process can last for hours, days, or
even weeks without interruption.
 Open- and closed loop system
An open-loop system is the simplest way to control a system
A tank that supplies water for an irrigation system can be used to illustrate an open-loop (or manual
control) system.

Automatic close-loop configuration performs the self-correcting function

The automatic system employs a feedback loop to keep track of how closely the system is doing the job is
was commended to do
The reservoir system can also be used to illustrate a closed-loop operation.
To perform automatic control, the system is modified by replacing the manually controlled valve with an
adjustable valve connected to a float

closed-loop system

open-loop system
Element of open- and closed loop system
Element of closed-loop system

Controlled Variable - The controlled variable is

the actual variable being monitored and
maintained at a desired value in the
manufacturing process.

Measured Variable - To monitor the status of

the controlled variable, it must be measured.

Measurement Device - The measurement

device is the “eye” of the system. It senses the
measured variable and produces an output
signal that represents the status of the
controlled variable

Feedback Signal - the feedback signal is the

output of the measurement device.
Element of open- and closed loop system
Set Point - The set point is the prescribed
input value applied to the loop that indicates
the desired condition of the controlled variable.

Error Detector - The error detector compares

the set point to the feedback signal.

Controller - The controller is the “brain” of the

system. It receives the error signal (for closed-
loop control) as its input, and develops an
output signal that causes the controlled
variable to become the value specified by the
set point.

Actuator - The actuator is the “muscle” of the

system. It is a device that physically alters
some type of energy or fuel supply, causing the
controlled variable to match the desired set
point.
Element of open- and closed loop system
Manipulated Variable - The amount of fuel or
energy that is physically altered by the actuator
is referred to as the manipulated variable.

Manufacturing Process - The manufacturing

process is the operation performed by the
actuator to control a physical variable, such as
the motion of a machine or the processing of a
liquid.

Disturbance - A disturbance is a factor that

upsets the manufacturing process being
performed, causing a change in the controlled
variable. In the reservoir system, the
disturbances are the rainfall and evaporation
that alter the water level.
Element of open- and closed loop system
Element of open-loop system

• Set Point
• Controller
• Actuator
• Manipulated Variable
• Manufacturing Process
• Disturbance
• Controlled Variable
 Feedback Control
Industrial automated control is performed using closed-loop systems.

The term “loop” is derived from the fact that, once the command signal is entered, it travels around the
loop until equilibrium is restored.

The basic concept of feedback control is that an error must exist before some corrective action can be
made.

An error can develop in one of three ways:

• The set point is changed.
• A disturbance appears.
• The load demand varies.
EET427

INDUSTRIAL Interfacing Devices

ELECTRONIC
CONTROL
 Objective
• Identify the schematic diagram, describe the operation and calculate the outputs of the comparator,
inverting, summing, noninverting and difference operational amplifiers (op amps)

• Identify the schematic diagram of the integrator and differentiator op amp and draw the output waveforms
they produce when various input signals are applied

• Given applied input signals, indicate the resulting output of the digital comparator device

• Describe the wave-shaping capability and operating characteristics of a Schmitt trigger

• Determine how optoelectronic device are switched and explain the isolation function they perform

• Explain operation of analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters, determine their resolution and make
the proper wiring connections to their integrated circuit packages

• Assemble monostable and astable multivibrators using 555 monolithic integrated circuit and use
calculations to determine their output
 Fundamental Operational Amplifiers
Versatile amplifier device – operational amplifier (op amp)

Most popular op amp is uA741 – fabricated inside an 8-pin integrated circuit package

Three important characteristic of op-amp that make ideal amplifiers

• High input impedance
• High voltage gain
• Low output impedance

Standard schematic symbol of uA741 op amp

 Operational Amplifier Comparator
Op amp configuration that operates as a voltage comparator

This device compares the voltage applied to one input to the voltage applied at the other input

Any difference between the voltages drives the op amp output either positive- or a negative-volt saturation
condition

Saturation – 80% of the supply voltage (if supply voltage is 6.25 V, output is 5V)

Polarity of the output - determined by polarity of the voltages applied to the inputs

Inverting input voltage < Noninverting input voltage = Positive output voltage
Inverting input voltage > Noninverting input voltage = Negative output voltage
Inverting input voltage = Noninverting input voltage = Zero output voltage
 Inverting Op Amp
Typical op amp can have voltage gain of approximately 200,000. However, the op amp is used for many
applications that require a voltage gain less than 200,000

A technique called feedback is used to control the gain of this device – accomplished by connecting a resistor
from the output terminal to an input lead

Output Voltage of the op amp

Voltage gain of the op amp

Summing Amplifier
This type of amplifier is capable of adding the algebraic
sum of DC or AC signals

How to determine the voltage at the output terminal

 Noninverting Amplifier
Some applications require that an amplified output signal be in phase with the input

Gain of the noninverting op amp

Gain will always be greater than 1

Output Voltage of the op amp

 Difference Operational Amplifier
The difference operational amplifier finds the algebraic
difference between two input voltages.

Neither the inverting input nor the non-inverting input is

grounded.

Instead, signals are applied to both inputs at the same

time, and the difference between them is amplified.

If the signals are the same, the output voltage is zero

Output Voltage of the op amp

 Summary of op amp
Inverting Op Amp Noninverting Amplifier

Summing Amplifier Difference Operational Amplifier

 Signal Processors
Signal processors are special devices that change or modify signals
applied to their inputs. The output signals of these devices can then
be used to perform specific functions.

Three signal processor devices will be described:

• The integrator
• The differentiator
• The Schmitt trigger.
 Integrator Operational Amplifier
An integrator is an amplifier circuit that continuously increases its gain over a period of time.

The magnitude of the output is proportional to the period of time that the input signal is present.

Schematic diagram of the integrator op-amp

Waveform diagram illustrate the operation of the circuit

when difference DC voltage applied to the input
 Integrator Operational Amplifier
At T2
At T1 Waveform levels off
When the input voltage because the op amp
changes from 0V to 5V reaches saturation

The capacitor initially has At T3

low impedance because Input voltage change
its discharges from +5V to 0V
Capacitor discharge 🡺
Gain = 0 🡺 ratio output return to 0V
feedback resistance to
the input resistance is  
zero
 Integrator Operational Amplifier

Input = Square wave voltage

Output = Saw-tooth waveform is develop

Rate at which the output changes is determined by the capacitor and resistor
value
 Integrator Operational Amplifier
Capacitor characteristic equations

Rate of change of the output

 Differential Operational Amplifier
Differentiator is an amplifier circuit that produces an
output proportional to the rate of change of the input
signal

Schematic diagram of the differential op-amp

Diagram – opposite of inverting op-amp – capacitor

replaces the input resistor instead of feedback resistor

Waveform – inverting lead is used, the output signal will Waveform diagram of differential op-amp
be opposite direction as the signal applied to the output
 Differential Operational Amplifier
T1 to T2
Input voltage = constant
Output voltage = 0 V

T2 to T3
Input voltage = slowly changes at
steady state
Output voltage = small constant DC
voltage

T3 to T4
Input voltage = changes at fast, steady
state
Output voltage = high constant DC voltage
Differential Operational Amplifier
Input voltage = saw-tooth waveform
Output voltage = square signal

Saw-tooth goes positive direction 🡺 square-

wave alternation is negative
Saw-tooth goes negative direction 🡺
square-wave alternation is positive

Output Voltage

Input signal Output signal

Differential Operational Amplifier

Input voltage = square- wave

signal
Output voltage = series of spike

Polarity of spike determine by

positive or negative going
position of square wave

Position going position of square

wave 🡺 negative spike
Negative going position of square
wave 🡺 positive spike
 Differential Operational Amplifier
How it works?

Output Voltage,
 Example 1
Determine the output voltage of the op-amp
differentiator for the triangle-wave input shown
below:

Draw the waveform for the output

 Schmitt Trigger
The Schmitt trigger is a device that produces rectangular wave signals.

It is often used to convert sine waves or arbitrary waveforms into crisp square- shaped signals.

It is also used to restore square waves, which sometimes become distorted due to electromagnetic
interference (called noise) during transmission, back to their required square- shaped waveforms.

Logic symbol
 Operation Schmitt Trigger
switching action
Schmitt Trigger

Time period 1

If input voltage below 1.7 V

= Logic 0 is recognised at the
input

The inverting output

= State 1 is generated
 Operation Schmitt Trigger
switching action
Schmitt Trigger
Time period 2
If input voltage exceed 1.7V positive
ongoing threshold level
= Logic 1 is recognised at the input

The inverting output

= State 0 is generated

(Note: Ragged spike on input signal

drops below 1.7 V into hysteresis
region during period 2. The output
does not change unless the input drop
below 0.9 V negative going threshold
level)
 Operation Schmitt Trigger
switching action
Schmitt Trigger
Time period 3
If input voltage drops below 0.9V
negative ongoing threshold level
= Logic 0 is recognised at the input

The inverting output

= State 1 is generated

(Note: Ragged spike on input signal

rise above 0.9 V into hysteresis region
during period 3. The output does not
change unless the input above 1.7 V
positive going threshold level)
 Schmitt Trigger

V -
in
V
out
+

-V
R1

R2
 Schmitt Trigger

V -
in
V
out
+

-V
R1

R2
 Comparator Device
The comparator element of a closed-loop system shown in figure has two
inputs and one output.

In electronics, a comparator is a device which compares two voltages or

currents and switches its output to indicate which is larger.
The term - a device that compares two items of data.

A standard op- amp without negative feedback can be used as a Comparator

comparator. The input and output signals can be either analog or digital. Element

Non-inverting input (V+) > Inverting input (V-) 🡺 high gain of the op-amp
causes it to output the most positive voltage it can.

Non-inverting input (V+) < Inverting input (V-) 🡺 the op-amp outputs the
most negative voltage it can.
Op-Amp
Digital Magnitude Comparator

Magnitude comparator capable of comparing two binary

numbers and indicating whether one number is greater that,
less than or equal to the other

Magnitude comparator

Four input lines for Input A

Four input lines for Input B
Three logic state output lines

If input A > input B 🡺 Output A > B goes High

If input A < input B 🡺 Output A < B goes High
If input A = input B 🡺 Output A = B goes High
 Opto-Electronic Interface Devices
The voltage used by one element of a closed- loop system is not always equal to the voltage used by
another element. Therefore they cannot be directly connected to one another.

Opto-electronic devices are used to make the output of one section compatible with the input of another
section.

Opto-electronic passed electrical signals from one elements to another by means of light energy

An opto-electronic device – consists of a light source

and photo detector

light source 🡺 convert light to electrical energy to light

Detector 🡺 converts light energy to electrical energy

Important applications of optoelectronics include:

• Optocoupler/Optocoupler
• Optical fiber communications
 Opto-Electronic Interface Devices
Light source usually semiconductor LED

Forward-biased state (Figure b)

Light emission occurs when electrons combine with hole around
the PN junctions
During this process, the electron fall to a lower energy level and
energy in the form of photos is released
Photons are light particles that travels in a waveform pattern

Light detection of photons is accomplished by

semiconductor device (Figure c)

As photons strikes the semiconductor material at the PN junction,

valance electrons are release
Valance electrons are available in the semiconductor then enable
current to pass through PN junction
 Photodiode

An electronic component that transfers electrical signals

between two isolated circuits by using light

Opto-isolators prevent high voltages from affecting the

system receiving the signal.

Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-

output voltages up to 10 kV and voltage transients with
speeds up to 25 kV/μs
 Phototransistors

A phototransistor is a device that converts light energy into electric energy.

Phototransistors are similar to photoresistors but produce both current and voltage, while photoresistors
only produce current.
This is because a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses the energy that is
passed through it.
Photons (light particles) activate phototransistors and are used in virtually all electronic devices that
depend on light in some way.

Applications

can be used in any electronic device that

senses light
Example: used in smoke detectors,
infrared receivers, and CD players.

Phototransistors can also be used in

astronomy, night vision, and laser range-
finding.
 Photo SCR

The photo SCR is also referred to as a light- activated SCR, or LASCR.

The operation of the LASCR is similar to the conventional SCR except that it is usually activated by light
instead of by a gate voltage that draws gate current.
 Photo Triac

The photo triac is a bi-directional device designed to switch AC signals and pass current in both directions

The photo triac is normally off if its PN unction is not exposed to light radiation of a certain density.

During each alternation, it turns on when triggered by a specified light intensity, and turns off when the
conducting current falls below a certain level.

The current capacity of the photo triac is not as high as the LASCR.
 Digital-to-Analog Converters
Digital-to-Analog converters (D-A-Cs or D/A converters) are used to convert digital signals representing
binary numbers into proportional analog voltages.

 
 Digital-to-Analog Converters
What is the analogue output voltage of the DAC when binary 1001 is
applied?
 
LSB
1
0
 

0
 

MSB 1  

 
Digital-to-Analog Converters
Integrated Circuit Digital-to-Analog Converters
 
 Analog-to-Digital Converters
The analog-to-digital converter (ADC or A/D
converter) is capable of converting analog
input voltages into proportional digital
numbers.

Analog-to-digital converters that operate a

high speeds employ a circuit called a
successive-approximation-register (SAR).

Its eight output lines D0-D7 cause the D/A

converter to produce different voltages.
These voltages will result if 10 volts is
supplied to the VREF input line.
Block diagram of an ADC that uses a SAR
DAC = Digital-to-Analog converter
EOC = end of conversion
SAR = successive approximation register
S/H = sample and hold circuit Vin = input voltage
Vref = reference voltage
 Analog-to-Digital Converters
The successive approximation Analog to digital
converter circuit typically consists of four chief
subcircuits:

-A sample and hold circuit to acquire the input

voltage (Vin).
-An analog voltage comparator that compares
Vin to the output of the internal DAC and
outputs the result of the comparison to the
successive approximation register (SAR).
-A successive approximation register subcircuit
designed to supply an approximate digital code
of Vin to the internal DAC.
-An internal reference DAC that supplies the
comparator with an analog voltage equivalent of
the digital code output of the SAR for
comparison with Vin.
 Analog-to-Digital Converters
The successive approximation register is
initialized so that the most significant bit (MSB)
is equal to a digital 1

This code is fed into the DAC, which then

supplies the analog equivalent of this digital
code (Vref/2) into the comparator circuit for
comparison with the sampled input voltage.

If this analog voltage exceeds Vin the

comparator causes the SAR to reset this bit;
otherwise, the bit is left a 1
 Analog-to-Digital Converters
Show the
waveforms that
would occur if the
SAR ADC were
used to convert a
5.59 V analog to an
equivalent 8-bit
digital output.
Analog-to-Digital Converters
Its operation is as follows:

1. When the START button is pressed, the

SAR is reset on the negative edge of the
pulse applied to the WR input.
2. The conversion is begun on the leading
edge of the conversion pulse after the START
button is released.
3. When the positive transition of the first clock
pulse occurs, the SAR produces a high at its
MSB output, D7. This causes the D/A
converter to produce an analog voltage that is
one-half its maximum value.
4. If the D/A converter output is higher than
the unknown analog voltage (analog the S AR
output returns low. If the D/A converter output
is lower than the analog input voltage, the
SAR leaves bit 7 high.
5. The second clock pulse causes the next
lower bit,D6, to produce a high. If it causes
the D/A converter output to be higher than the
analog input, it returns to a low. If not, the
SAR leaves D6 high.
6. This process continues with the remaining
six bits, D5 to D0.
7. At the end of the process, the SAR contains
an 8- bit binary output that causes the D/A
converter to produce an analog output equal
to the unknown analog input. This occurs at
the end of the eighth clock pulse. The 8-bit
binary number contained by the SAR
represents the analog input present at the
eight output lines.
 Analog-to-Digital Converters
Clock

STRT

INTR

D7
D6
D5
D4 D3
D2

D1 D0

7.5 5.5859375
5.546875
6.25 5.46875
5.3125
5.625
5