WINE PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
• Winemaking, or vinification, is the
production of wine.
• Although most wine is made from
grapes.
• Mead is a wine that is made with honey
being the primary ingredient after
water.
Wine Production
 Red & White Wine Production

One of the first things they realized was that red wine

production required that the grapes be fermented in
contact with their skins. This gives the wine color and
body. In contrast, most white wine production does not
occur in contact with the grape skins. Whites are valued
for their fresh fruit characteristics, and skin contact
would impart unwanted bitter tannins.
Wine Production : Main Steps
1. Viticulture
2. Harvesting
3. Stemming/Crushing
4. Fermentation
5. Draining
6. Pressing
7. Mixing
8. Clarification
9. Aging
10. Bottleing
Wine Production: Process
 Wine Production
1. Viticulture
Factors which inflence grape’s flavor:
• climate of the vineyard’s region
• drainage around the vines
• humidity of the region
• sun exposure.
• soil quality
 Wine Production
2. Harvesting
•Grappes are picked up by hand or
mechanically
•Descision of harvest informed by level of
sugar and acid
•weather forecasts
 Wine Production
3. Stemming/Crushing

Stemming is the separation of the stems and

grapes (which are sends to the press)

Crushing: A horizontal press squeezes

the broken grapes, separating the
fresh juice (must) from the skins
(marc)
After crushing starts the fermentation
process.
 Wine Production
4. Fermentation
•sugar and acids that naturally react
with wild yeasts
•Vineyard adding their own yeasts
•fermentation can take from 10 to
30 days to convert natural sugar to
alcohol.

5. Draining
Liquid wine is drained from the vat without being pressed and go into
barrels (free-run wine). The remaining pulp retains about 20% of the
wine.
 Wine Production
6. Pressing
The remaing pulp, after draining, is pressed to
squeeze out the press wine. The press wine tends
to be dark, harsh and unpalatable, and is mixed
with free-run wine to produce something decent.

7. Mixing
The free-run wine and press wine, always from the same source, are mixed
together in appropriate ratios to obtain the desired balance.
 Wine Production
8. Clarification
Clarification is the step of stabilisation of fermentation.
During clarification all remaining solids are removed from the fermented
liquid.
Clarification done in numerous ways:
•fining, a process that calls for the addition of substances that cause the
solids in the liquid to adhere to one another and sink to the bottom of
the vat
•running the liquid through coarse and fine filters
•siphoning the liquid off the top of the fermenting vats after the solids
have settled to the bottom
 Wine Production
9. Aging
The final stage in vinification is aging the
wine. At this point, the clarified wine is
transferred into either wooden barrels or
metal vats in which the wine is allowed to
further mature and develop flavors. If a
winemaker chooses to age the wine in
wooden casks, he will be allowing the wine
to pick up flavors from the wood, adding
greater depth to its flavors. While this can
add body to some wines, keep in mind that
the “woody” flavor isn’t suited to all types
of wine, hence the use of metal vats.
 Wine Production
10. Bottleing
The final step of wine production.
A dose of sulfite is added to help
preserve the wine and prevent
unwanted fermentation in the
bottle.
The wine bottles then are
traditionally sealed with a cork,
although alternative wine
clossure such as synthetic corks
and screwcaps, which are less
subject to cork taint, are
becoming increasingly popular.
 Crushing and primary
(alcoholic) fermentation
• Crushing is the process when gently squeezing the
berries and breaking the skins to start to liberate
the contents of the berries.
• the harvested grapes are sometimes crushed by
trampling them barefoot or by the use of
inexpensive small scale crushers.
• larger wineries, a mechanical crusher/destemmer is
used.
Secondary (malolactic) fermentation
and bulk aging
• During the secondary fermentation and aging
process, which takes three to six months, the
fermentation continues very slowly.
• The wine is kept under an airlock to protect the
wine from oxidation.
• Proteins from the grape are broken down and the
remaining yeast cells and other fine particles from
the grapes are allowed to settle.
• The secondary fermentation usually takes place in
either large stainless steel vessels with a volume of
several cubic meters, or oak barrels, depending on
the goals of the winemakers.
 Malolactic fermentation

• Malolactic fermentation occurs when lactic acid

bacteria metabolize malic acid and produce lactic
acid and carbon dioxide.
• Malolactic fermentation can improve the taste of
wine that has high levels of malic acid, because
malic acid, in higher concentration.
• White wines vary in the use of malolactic
fermentation during their making.
 Preservatives

• The most common preservative used in winemaking

is sulfur dioxide.
• It added in one of the following forms: liquid sulfur
dioxide, sodium or potassium metabisulphite.
Another useful
• Sulfur dioxide has two primary actions, firstly it is
an anti microbial agent and secondly an anti oxidant.
• In the making of white wine it can be added prior to
fermentation and immediately after alcoholic
fermentation is complete.
• If added after alcoholic ferment it will have
the effect of preventing or stopping
malolactic fermentation, bacterial spoilage
and help protect against the damaging effects
of oxygen.preservative is potassium sorbate.
 Bottling

• A final dose of sulfite is added to help

preserve the wine and prevent unwanted
fermentation in the bott
• Then filled in the bottel.
 SPIRITS

The word distillation comes (from the Latin destillare meaning to drip)
which is the extraction of higher alcohols from fermented drinks by using
the action of heat to vapourize them. Basically what distillation is the
concentration or increasing of alcohol strength

21
 Definition
A distilled beverage, spirit, or liquor is an alcoholic
beverage  containing ethanol  that is produced
by distilling  (i.e., concentrating by distillation ) ethanol
produced by means of fermenting  grain, fruit, or
vegetables. This excludes undistilled fermented
beverages such as beer, wine, and cider
. Vodka, gin,rakı, baijiu, tequila, rum, whisky, brandy,
Singani and soju are examples of distilled beverages
The term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that
contains no added sugar and has at least
20% alcohol by volume (ABV).

Beer and wine, which are not distilled beverages, are

limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20%
ABV, as most yeasts cannot reproduce when the
concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a
consequence, fermentation ceases at that point.
Hard liquor is used in North America and India to
distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones
 Raw materials of Distilled Spirits
• The availability of this base ingredient and the uniqueness
of the land which is it grown all play an integral part in the
different complexities and qualities found in these distilled
spirits.
• Anything that can be fermented can be used as a raw
material for spirits – whether fruit, grain or vegetable.
• Where sugar is present in the primary material, as in
molasses or fruit, the fermentation can be started directly.
• Some spirits can be made from one particular material
only, (i.e. whiskey, vodka, genever), some schnapps and
akvavit from grain. Other, such as Vodka, can be made from
a broad range of raw materials, including various grains,
potatoes, and even sugar cane and grapes
 Methods of Alcohol Separation
Two distinctively different methods to separate alcohol: Congelation method (freeze
distillation) and the boiling method or (heat distillation)
which is commonly referred to as the distillation method.

Congelation (cold extraction): separation by freezing below zero degrees Celsius or

31F degrees;
• only problem with this method is that this is a dangerous method of separation,
• most International countries do not officially recognize this method of alcohol
separation and have banned its use making the method of alcohol separation
illegal,
• less than 2% of the worlds distilled spirits are made using this method.

Distillation (heat extraction): separation by vaporization of the fermentable liquid at

78.5 degrees Celsius or 172
Degrees Fahrenheit to create alcohol’.
• scientifically the best separation method and research figures indicate that this
method accounts for 98% of the worlds spirits produced,
• the most widely method officially recognized by International governments to
separate alcohol for creating spirits which taxes and duties are levied.
 Distillation
Water – boils at 100 C (212 F)
Ethanol – boils at 78.5 C (173.3 F)

Mixture is heated; ethanol gas is

driven off at lower temperature;
gathered in condenser – note, various
devices added to minimize water
vapor from escaping
 Distilled Alcoholic Beverages - Whiskeys

Whiskey: made from malted barley, or malted barley + other grain

- proof = twice concentration of alcohol (90 proof = 45% alcohol)
Scotch: made from barley malt; aged in charred casks
Bourbon: from Bourbon Co., Kentucky – 51+% corn
Tennessee sour mash: similar to bourbon; filtered through charcoal
Rye: 51% rye grain
Straight whiskey: <80 proof; aged 2+ years in new charred barrels
 Principles of Distillation
Pot Still: (alembic or alambic)
• This looks like a large copper kettle and is heated by direct heat.
• The vapours collect in the head and are led off through a narrow tube at the
top, called the swan’s neck from where they go to the condenser. Here they
are liquefied.
• Such a still is not very heat-efficient, but it produces spirits with character.
• Pot still distillation is a small batch process, This redistilling often several times
is necessary to achieve the appropriate alcohol level.
• Most spirits made with a pot still are double distilled, but sometimes it is done
in three or even four stages (i.e. Irish whiskey, distilled three times).
• Several spirits are produced using the Pot still: Cognac, brandy, Scotch malt
whisky, Irish whiskey, American Bourbon whiskey, some rums (usually the
darker ones) and some other spirits.

Pot Still: (alembic or alambic)

 Principles of Distillation
The Still man: separates the poisonous parts (methanol, propandl, butanol),
from the required spirit (ethanol). The still man identifies all these
separations and parts by (a) tell by nose and (b) the rising hydrometer, the
first and the last parts will not be included in the final spirit as they contain
toxic compounds.
Continuous still: (referred to as the Patent, Column or Coffey Still): invented by
Robert Stein in 1820, developed by Aeneas Coffey.Consists of two tall
columns, each about sixty feet in height, called the analyzer and the rectifier.
The alcoholic wash is broken down into its constituent vapours, or analysed,
in the analyzer, and the vapours are selectively condensed, or rectified, in the
rectifier.
Large coffey still (exterior view).Coffey still diagram.
Small coffey still (interior view)
 Maturing and Oxidation
The barrel: most common vessel used for maturing spirits, usually 500-litre size
(although smaller sizes can also be used which restricts the oxygen intake
and changes the character of the final spirit) wooden barrel help the
chemical reactions, extraction of taste, extraction of bouquet and
extraction of colour.
Evaporation loss of spirit (like angels share contains dangerous fusel oils this
vaporises first.
In summary the wooden barrel helps the spirit to;
• change as the congeners (fusels) interact with air filtering through the
porous wooden barrels
• new congeners are absorbed from the wood itself, adding flavouring agents
to the final spirit (flavours are married, blended). Not all spirits are aged.
Wood finishes: More and more, some distilleries are producing whisky with
various finishes, achieved by the last 6 months to 2 years of maturationbeing
in ex-Sherry, ex-Port, ex-Madeira,
Maturation periods: can differ (a minimum of 3 years before it can be legally
called Irish or Scotch whiskey).
Used Bourbon cask American white oak. French oak cask
 Brandies
• Brandies are distilled wines.
• The most famous come from France.
Cognac is one type.
• The fermented juices of many other
fruits are also distilled.
• Liquers differ from brandy in that
various flavoring agents are added.
They have sugar and syrups added.
• By the 15th century, the English
and Scots had begun distilling
barley beer and, in the 16th
century, cognac was prepared in
France. Whiskeys were made in a
similar way.
• Once distilled, the mixture is
diluted back to about 50% alcohol
in general. Whiskeys are aged in
(usually oak) barrels.
• The inside of these barrels is
often charred. The barrel
provides some of the flavoring
materials.
• Scotch whiskeys have a
characteristic taste because of
the smoking process (over peat)
used to dry the malt.
• Bourbon whiskey is made from corn
as the primary grain (Zea mays,
Poaceae) and was developed by the
early Scottish (many of whom are
called Scots-Irish) immigrants in
Pennsylvania.
• These whiskies are aged for at
least two years in new, charred
oak barrels.
Aging of whiskey in charred white oak barrels
 Other distilled beverages

• Gin and vodka are distilled to a

high percentage of alcohol and in
the case of gin, Juniperus
communis, Cupressaceae, "berries"
are added.
• These beverages can be distilled
from almost any fermented mixture
including potatoes, grains, etc.
• Rum is made from fermented
molasses or sugar cane juice.
 Tequila and mescal

• Tequila and mescal are

distilled from pulque made
from various Agave species.
Fig:-Distillation process
38
USES:
Used as beverage

Burn it - as fossil fuels

Wear it - in perfumes

Wash with it – for cleaning

Dissolve in it - extracts
39
 Production of Rum
• History:

• 2 kinds of Rum:
– The industrial: the alcohol resulting from distillery of
molasses
– The agricultural: alcohol obtained by distilling the
fresh, fermented cane juice
PRODUCTION LINE
 THE CANE CUTTING

• reaped during the drying period

• cut into short logs and

bundled for transport

• crushed as soon as possible to avoid drying

and deterioration of the sugar
 CRUSHING
• weighed, controlled and discharged.

• millings stages:
to separate the cane juice (vesou)
from the fibbers (the bagasse)
The bagasse serves as combustion for the furnaces

The vesou is gathered in a drainage

system for filtering and pumped on
to the fermenting vats
 THE FERMENTATION

• Process of transforming the sugars into alcohol :

– optimal temperature 30 C°
– yeast (private of oxygen)

• 72 hours after…
– Cane wine is obtained: moût
(7% of alcohol)
– Moût is quickly sent for distillation
 THE DISTILLATION
Definition: The method consist in heating the wine to vaporize the volatile components,
mainly the alcohol, and then to condense them

The column give to the

Rhum its own
characteristics.
 THE AGEING
White Agricultural Rhum :
 stored in huge wooden tuns to be "rounded out“ (before bottling)
 Spring water is crossed to have the degrees desired for commercialisation (40° to
62°)

Golden agricultural Rhum or amber agricultural Rhum :

 stored for at least 12 months in wooden containers.

 golden colour: due to its short period spent in an oak tun
 Other distilleted beverages
Rakı is an unsweetened, anise-flavored Turkish alcoholic drink  that is
produced by grape. is an unsweetened, anise-flavored Turkish
alcoholic drink.

Brandy is a spirit produced by distilling wine. Brandy generally

contains 35–60% alcohol by volume.

Gin is a spirit which derives its predominant flavour from juniper

berries (Juniperus communis)
Vodka is a distilled beverage composed primarily of water
and ethanol, sometimes with traces of impurities and flavorings.
Traditionally, vodka is made by the distillation of fermented cereal
grains or potatoes, though some modern brands use other
substances, such as fruits or sugar. 40% alcohol by volume ABV
Production of vinegar
 What is vinegar?
• Vinegar is a product resulting from the conversion
of alcohol to acetic acid by acetic acid bacteria,
Acetobacter spp.
• The name is derived from French (Vin = wine;
Aigre-sour or sharp).
• When alcoholic fermentation occurs and later
during acidifications many other compounds are
produced.
• Depending mostly on the nature of the material
fermented and some of these find their way into
vinegar.
• Reactions also occur between these fermentation
products
• Ethyl acetate, for example, is formed from the
reaction between acetic acid and ethanol.
• It is these other compounds which give the various
vinegars their organoleptic properties.
• The other compounds include: non-volatile organic
acids such as malic, citric, succinic and lactic acids;
unfermented and unfermentable sugars; oxidized
alcohol and acetaldelyde, acetoin, phosphate,
chloride, and other ions.
 Uses of vinegar
• Ancient uses:
1. Food condiment

2. Treatment of Wounds

3. Wide variety of illnesses such as plague, ringworms,

burns, lameness
4. Cleansing agent

5. It was used as a cosmetic aid.

• Modern uses:

(a) Food condiment, sprinkled on certain foods

such as fish at the table.
(b) For pickling and preserving meats and
vegetables; it can reduce the pH of food below
that which even spore formers may not
survive.
(c) Manufacture of sauces, salad dressings,
mayonnaise, tomato productions, cheese
dressings, mustard, and soft drinks.
 TYPES OF VINEGAR
• The composition and specifications of various
types of vinegars are defined by regulations
set up by the governments of different
countries .
• In the United States, for example, vinegar
should not contain less than 4.0% (w/v) acetic
acid and not more than 0.5% ethanol (v/v).
There are many different types of vinegars. The
classification is usually based on the raw
material used for its production. Malt vinegar,
Wine vinegar, Apple cider vinegar, Balsamic
vinegar, Fruit vinegar and many other types of
vinegar exist in today’s global market. The most
common types of vinegars and their origin are
discussed
 Wine Vinegar
Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine and is the most commonly used vinegar in
Mediterranean countries and Central Europe. As with wine, there is a considerable range in
quality. Better quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years and exhibit a
complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than that of white or cider
vinegars.
Beer Vinegar
Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. Although its flavor depends on the particular type of
beer from which it is made, it is often described as having a malty taste. That produced in
Bavaria, is a light golden color with a very sharp and not-overly-complex flavor. In Beer vinegar
and Wine vinegar production only one type of fermentation takes place; for the conversion of
ethanol in to acetic acid.
Fruit Vinegars
Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines, usually without any additional flavoring. Common
flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, black currant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. Typically,
the flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product. Most fruit vinegars are produced
in Europe, where there is a growing market for high-priced vinegars made solely from specific
fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars which are infused with fruits or fruit flavors).
 Balsamic Vinegar
Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged type of vinegar traditionally crafted in the
Modena and Reggio Emilia provinces of Italy from the concentrated juice, or must, of
white grapes .It is very dark brown in color and its flavor is rich, sweet, and complex,
with the finest grades being the product of years of aging in a successive number of
casks made of various types of wood (including oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry,
juniper, ash, and acacia). Originally a product available only to the Italian upper classes,
a cheaper form of balsamic vinegar became widely known and available around the
world in the late twentieth century. True balsamic vinegar (which has Protected
Designation of Origin) is aged for 12 to 25 years. Balsamic vinegars that have been
aged for up to 100 years are available, though they are usually very expensive.

Malt Vinegar
Malt vinegar is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to
maltose. Then ale is brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which
is then aged. It is typically light brown in color.
 Rice Vinegar
Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East
and Southeast Asia. It is available in “white” (light
yellow), red, and black varieties. The Japanese prefer
light rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and
salad dressings. Red rice vinegar traditionally is
colored with red yeast rice. Black rice vinegar (made
with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China,
and it is also widely used in other East Asian
countries. White rice vinegar has a mild acidity and a
somewhat “flat”, uncomplex flavor.
 ORGANISMS INVOLVED
• The bacteria converting alcohol to acetic acid under
natural conditions are film forming organisms on the
surface of wine and beer.
• The film was known as ‘mother of vinegar’ before its
bacteriological nature became known.
• The bacteria were first described as Mycoderma (viscous
film) in 1822.
• Later other workers classified them in M. vini (forming film
on wine) an M. acetic (forming film on beer).
• Pasteur confirmed that acetic acid is produced only in the
presence of the bacteria, but he did not identify them.
• The genus name Acetobacter was put forward by
Beijerinck in 1900.
• Although Acetobacter spp are responsible for
vinegar production, pure cultures are hardly used,
except in submerged fermentation because of the
difficulty of isolating and maintaining the organisms.
• The only member of the genus which is not useful, if
not positively harmful in vinegar production is
Acetobacter xylinum which tends to produce slime
• Recently a new species, Acetobacter europaeus,
was described.
• Its distinguishing features are its strong tolerance of
acetic acid of 4 to 8% in agar, and its absolute
requirement of acetic acid for growth.
Strains of acetic acid bacteria to be used in
industrial production should:

a) tolerate high concentrations of acetic acid

b) require small amounts of nutrient
c) not overoxidize the acetic acid formed
d) be high yielding in terms of the acetic acid
produced.
The biochemical processes for vinegar
production
• 1 gm of alcohol should yield 1.304 gm of acetic acid
but this is hardly achieved and only in unusual cases
is a yield of 1.1 attained.
• From the reactions one mole of ethanol will yield
one mole of acetic acid and mole of water.
• It can be calculated that 1 gallon of 12% alcohol will
yield 1 gal. of 12.4% acetic acid.
• Over-oxidation can occur and it is undesirable.
• In over-oxidation acetic acid is converted to CO2
and H2O.
• It occurs when there is a lack or low level of alcohol.
• It occurs more frequently in submerged
fermentations than in the trickle processes.
 Common production flowsheet of vinegar
Fruit Yeast Mother of
juice vinegar

Fruits Alcohol Acetic Acid

Ripening
Fermentation Fermentation

Filtration
Pasterization

Bottling
 MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR
Three methods used for the production of
vinegar are :
1.The Orleans Method (also known as the slow
method).
2.The Trickling (or quick) Method
3. Submerged Fermentation.
The Orleans Method (also known as the slow
method).

Slow process.
manufacture of high- quality vinegars.
also called continuous method.

This method, made famous by the French,

was named after a small town in France
named Orleans, known as the city of
vinegars.
 1.The Orleans (or Slow) Method
• The oldest method of vinegar production is the ‘let alone’
method in which wine left in open vats became converted
to vinegar by acetic acid bacteria entering it from the
atmosphere.
• Later the wine was put in casks and left in the open field
in the ‘fielding process’.
• A small amount of vinegar was introduced into a cask of
wine to help initiate fermentation.
• The introduced vinegar not only lowered the pH to the
disadvantage of many other organisms but also
introduced an inoculum of acetic acid bacteria.
• A thick film of acetic acid bacteria formed on the wine
and converted it into vinegar in about five weeks.
The process had a number of disadvantages

(a) It was slow in comparison with later methods

(slow method).
(b) It was inefficient, yielding 75-85% of the
theoretical amount.
(c) The ‘mother of vinegar’ usually gradually filled
the cask and effectively killed the process.
2 .The Trickling Generators (Quick) Method

• The Dutch Boerhaave who in 1732 devised the

first trickling generator in which he used
branches of vines, and grape stems as packing.
• Improvements were made by a number of other
people from time to time.
• Later ventilation holes were drilled at the bottom
of the generator and provided a mechanical means
for the repeated distribution of the alcohol acetic
acid mixture over the packing.
• The heat generated by the exothermic reaction in the
generator caused a draft which provided oxygen for
the aerobic conversion of alcohol to acetic acid.
• This latter model of the quick method (sometimes
called the German method) enabled the production
of vinegar in days instead of in weeks.
• It remained in vogue unmodified for just over a
century when several modifications were introduced
in the Frings method, including:
(a) forced aeration
(b) temperature control
(c) semicontinuous operation.
• The modern vinegar generator consists of a tank
constructed usually of wood preferably of cypress
and occasionally of stainless steel.
• A false bottom supports the coils of birchwood
shavings and separates them from the collection
chamber which occupies about one fifth of the
total capacity of the generator (Fig. 14.1).
• A pump circulates the alcohol-acetic acid mixture
from the reservoir through a heat exchanger to
the top of the generator where a spray
mechanism distributes it over the packing.
• Air is forced through the false bottom up
through the set-up.
• The cooling water in the heat exchanger is used to
regulate the temperature in the generator so that it is
between 29°C and 35°C; this is determined with
thermometers placed at different levels of the
generator.
• The top of the generator is covered but provision
exists for exhaust air to be let out.
• Meters measure three parameters:
(a) the circulation of the mash
(b) the flow of cooling water through the heat exchange
(c) the amount of air delivered through the system.
• If the air flow rate is too high alcohol and vinegar are
lost in effluent air.
 Operation of the generator:
The trickling or circulating Frings generator is
reasonably efficient, achieving, when operating
maximally, an efficiency of 91-92% and it is capable of
producing 500–1000 gallons of 100-grain (i.e. 10%)
vinegar every 24 hours.
Although the wood shavings soften with age, well-
maintained generators can proceed without much
attention for twenty to thirty years.
They are easy to maintain once airflow and
recirculation rates as well as temperatures are
maintained at the required level.
The level of ethyl alcohol must be maintained so that
it does not fall below 0.3-0.5% at any time.
  Complete exhaustion of the alcohol will lead to
the death of the bacteria.
• When wine and cider vinegar are made no
nutrients need be added to the charge (i.e., the
alcohol-containing material).
• However, when white vinegar (produced from
synthetic alcohol is used) nutrients e.g. simple
low concentration sugar-mineral salts solution
sometimes containing a little yeast extraction may
be added.
• Growth of the slime-forming Acetobacter xylinum
is less with white vinegar (from pure alcohol) than
with wine and cider vinegar.
• Generators for producing white vinegar therefore
become blocked by slime much less quickly than
those used for wine and cider vinegar, and can last
far in excess of 20 to 30 years before the wood
shavings are changed.
• The finished acidity of the vinegar is about 12%;
when it is higher, production drops off.
• In order not to exceed this level of acidity, when
drawing off vinegar, the amount of alcohol in the
replacement should be such that the total amount
of alcohol is less than 5%.
video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZJSpTIoHH8
 3. Submerged Generators
• The common feature in all submerged vinegar
production is that the aeration must be very vigorous as
shortage of oxygen because of the highly acid conditions
of submerged production, would result in the death of
the bacteria within 30 seconds.
• Furthermore, because a lot of heat is released (over
30,000 calories are released per gallon of ethanol) an
efficient cooling system must be provided.
• All submerged vinegar is turbid because of the high
bacterial content and have to be filtered.
• Some submerged generators will be discussed below.
 3.1 Frings acetator
• Most of the world’s vinegar is now produced with this
fermentor.
• It consists of a stainless steel tank fitted with internal
cooling coils and a high-speed agitator fitted through the
bottom.
• Air is sucked in through an air-meter located at the top.
• It is then finely dispersed by the agitator and distributed
throughout the liquid.
• Temperature is maintained at 30°C, although some strains
can grow at a higher temperature.
• Foaming is interrupted with an automatic foam breaker.
Essentially it is shaped like the typical aerated stirred tank
– It is operated batchwise and the cycle time for producing
12% vinegar is about 35 hours.
– It is self aspirating, no compressed air being needed. The
hollow rotor is installed on the shaft of a motor mounted
under the fermentor, connected to an air suction pipe
and surrounded by a stator.
– It pumps liquid that enters the rotor from above outward
through the channels of the stator that are formed by
the wedges, thereby sucking air through the openings of
the rotor and creating an air–liquid emulsion that is
ejected outward at a given speed.
– This speed must be chosen adequately so that the
turbulence of the stream causes a uniform distribution
of the air over the whole cross section of the fermentor.
 Advantages
(a) The efficiency of the acetator is much higher than that
of the trickling generator; the production rate of the
acetator may be 10-fold higher than a trickling unit.
Values of 94% and 85% of the theoretical have been
recorded for both the acetator and the trickling filter.
(b) The quality is more uniform and the inexplicable
variability in quality noted for the trickling generator is
absent.
(c) A much smaller space is occupied (about one-sixth) in
comparison with the trickling generator.
(d) It is easy and cheap to change from one type of vinegar
to another.
(e) Continuous production and automation can take place
more easily with Frings acetator than with trickling.
 Disadvantages

(a) A risk exists of complete stoppage following

death of bacteria from power failure even for a
short time. Automatic stand-by generators have
helped to solve this problem.
(b) It has a high rate of power consumption. Some
authors have however argued that in fact in terms
of power consumed per gallon of acetic produced
the acetator is less power consuming.
 3.2 The cavitators
• The cavitator was originally designed to treat
sewage: it was then modified for vinegar production.
• In many ways it resembled the acetator. However,
the agitator was fixed to the top and finely dispersed
air bubbles are introduced into the liquid.
• It operated on a continuous basis and was quite
successful in producing cider and other vinegars as
long as the grain strength was low.
• It was not successful with high grain vinegar and the
manufacture of the ‘cavitator’ was discontinued in
1969. Although some are still being used in Japan
and the US.
 3.3 The tower fermentor
• The tubular (tower) fermentor developed in the UK
has been used on a commercial scale for the
production of beer, vinegar, and citric acid.
• The fermentor is two feet in diameter, about 20 feet
tall in the tubular section with an expansion chamber
of about four feet in diameter and six feet high.
• It has a working volume of 3,000 liters and aeration
is achieved by a stainless steel perforated plate
covering the cross section of the tower and holding
up the liquid. The charging wort is fed at the bottom.
• The unit can produce up to 1 million gallons
(450,000 liters) of 5% acetic acid per annum.
• The system can be batch, semi or fully-continuous.
 PROCESSING OF VINEGAR
(a) Clarification and bottling:
• Irrespective of the method of manufacture, vinegar
for retailing is clarified by careful filtration using a
filter aid such as diatomaceous earth.
• Vinegar from trickling generators are however less
turbid than those from submerged fermentations
because a high proportion of the bacterial population
responsible for the acetification is held back on the
shavings.
• After clarification it is pasteurized at 60-65°C for 30
minutes.
 (b) Concentration of vinegar:
• Vinegar can be concentrated by freezing; thereafter the resulting
slurry is centrifuged to separate the ice and produce the
concentrate.
• With this method 200° grain (i.e., 20% w/v) acetic acid can be
produced.
• Concentration is necessitated by two considerations.
• One is the consequent reduction in transportation costs.
• The other is the need to prevent loss of activity of the vinegar
when cucumbers were pickled in it after first being soaked in
brine.

a grain (% acetic acid X 10)(analyzed by volume)

1 grain =64.79891 milligrams
FERMENTED VEGETABLES
 FERMENTED VEGETABLES
 Vegetable fermentation originated in the early years of human
civilization and, even now, is widely used by many cultures.
 Almost all vegetables can be fermented through natural
processes because they harbor many types of lactic acid
bacteria.
 Worldwide, most of the vegetable fermentation is done
domestically.
 The fermentation process for vegetables can result in
nutritious foods that may be stored for extended periods, 1
year or more, without refrigeration.
 Examples of some fermented products and vegetables used
currently for fermentation are sauerkraut and kimchi,(from
cabbage), olives, cucumbers, carrots, celery, beans, peas, corn,
okra, tomatoes, cauliflower, peppers, onions, citron, beets,
turnips, radishes, chard, Brussels sprouts, and their blends.
 SAUERKRAUT

• Country:
Germany
• Major Ingredients: Cabbage, Salt
• Usage: Salad, Side Dish

• Product Description: Fermented

shredded cabbage. The product has
a sour taste with a clean acid flavor.
• Microorganisms: L. mesenteroides,
Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus
cerevisiae and Lb. plantarum,
• Starter Culture: Natural Microflora,
commercial starter cultures are
available. Sometimes backslopping.
 SAUERKRAUT
Deleaf, Core and Shreds
Fresh Cabbage
Trim (2-5mm Thick)

Ferment
Fill in Salt
18C-20C
Wooden Vats (2-3% w/w)
35-40 Days

Pasteurize Packagaging
 SAUERKRAUT
• Salting
• The level of salting is critical to obtaining a satisfactory product, it
must be within the range 2–3% w/w and is normally about 2.25%.
• Too little salt (<2%) and the product softens unacceptably, too much
salt (>3%) and the correct microbial sequence is not obtained.
• The salt serves a number of purposes:
• (i) it extracts moisture from the shredded cabbage by osmosis to
form the brine in which the fermentation will take place;
• (ii) it helps to inhibit some of the natural microflora of the cabbage
such as pseudomonads which would otherwise cause spoilage and
helps to select for the lactic acid bacteria;
• (iii) it helps maintain the crisp texture of the cabbage by
withdrawing water and inhibiting endogenous pectolytic enzymes
which cause the product to soften;
• (iv) finally, salt contributes to the flavour of the product.
 SAUERKRAUT
• Fermentation
• The starter for sauerkraut production is usually the normal mixed
flora of cabbage.
• The raw material has a large number of undesirable organisms and a
small population of lactic acid bacteria (<1%)
• Among the lactic acid bacteria, most are Lactococcus spp. and
Leuconostoc spp., and a small fraction is Lactobacillus spp. and
Pediococcus spp.
• During fermentation, sequential growth of these lactic acid bacteria
occurs.
• The presence of 2.25% salt, large amounts of fermentable sugars
(sucrose, hexoses, pentoses), an absence of oxygen, and a low
fermentation temperature facilitate Leuconostoc spp., primarily Leu.
mesenteroides, to grow rapidly
 SAUERKRAUT
• Fermentation
• When the acidity has reached approximately 1% (as lactic acid),
growth of Leu. mesenteroides slows down.
• Then Lab. brevis starts growing rapidly until acid production
reaches approximately 1.5%.
• Then Ped. pentosaceus takes over and increases the acidity to
approximately 1.8%.
• Finally, Lab. plantarum starts growing and brings the acid level
to approximately 2%.
 SAUERKRAUT
• Biochemistry
• Leuconostoc spp. metabolize sucrose, hexoses, and some
pentoses in the raw material to lactate, acetate, ethanol, CO2,
and diacetyl.
• Lab. brevis (obligatory heterofermentative, such as Leuconostoc
spp.) ferments sucrose, hexoses, and pentoses to products similar
to those by Leuconostoc spp.
• Ped. pentosaceus metabolizes hexoses to form mainly lactic acid
and some pentoses to lactic acid, acetate, and ethanol.
• Lab. plantarum also produces products from sucrose, hexoses,
and pentoses similar to those by Ped. pentosaceus.
• The characteristic flavor of sauerkraut is the result of the
combined effects of lactate, acetate, ethanol, CO2, and diacetyl in
proper amounts.
 KIMCHI
• Region: Korea
• Major Ingredients:
Chinese Cabbage,
Asian Radish, Red Pepper, Ginger,
Garlic, Salt
• Usage: Salad, Side Dish

• Product Description: Fermented

shredded cabbage. The product has
a sour taste with a clean acid flavor.
• Microorganisms: L. mesenteroides,
Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus
cerevisiae and Lb. plantarum,
• Starter Culture: Natural Microflora,
commercial starter cultures are
available.
 KIMCHI

Soaking in 5-10% Washing and

Fresh Cabbage
Brine Solution Draining

Fermentation in
Refrigeration Addition of Spices
‘Kimchi
and other
1-2C Refrigerators’ at
Ingredients
18C, 3-4 days

Packaging & Storage

KIMCHI
 KIMCHI
• Biochemistry and fermentation aspects of Kimchi are similar to
sauerkraut.
• The best taste is claimed after 3 days at 20C when the acidity is 0.6% and
the pH around 4.2.
• Leuconostoc mesenteroides is the principal organism responsible for the
fermentation
• Dominance of Lactobacillus plantarum is regarded as a defect which
results in an excessively sour product.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN KIMCHI AND
SAUERKRAUT

Sauerkraut Parameter Kimchi

2% Acid content 0.6%

2-3% Salt Content 3-3.5%

Min 7 days Fermentation 3-4 days

Time
Only Cabbage and Ingredients Contains added
Salt ingredients for flavor

Finely Shredded Cabbage Large Chunks

 OLIVES
• Region: Mediterranean
• Major Ingredients: Olives,
Brine
• Usage: Salad, Side Dish
• Microorganisms:
L.mesenteroides,
Lactobacillus brevis,
Pediococcus cerevisiae
and Lb. plantarum,
• Starter Culture: Natural
Microflora, commercial
starter cultures are
available.
 OLIVES

Lye Treatment-10hr
Unripe fruits are treated Washing and Soaking
Unripe Olives with 1.6-2% lye solution to 10hrs
hydrolyze the glucoside
oleuropein

Final Product Fermentation

pH of 3.8-4.0 following up Oak Barrels, 8% Salt,
to a 1% lactic acid Inoculation with L.
production. plantarum, 6-8 months
 OLIVES
• Fermentation
• The initial pH of the fermentation can be above 7 depending
on how much washing was done after the NaOH treatment.
• As a consequence, the initial microflora during fermentation
can include a variety of gram-positive bacilli (Bacillus species)
and gram-negative enteric bacteria (Enterobacter, Citrobacter,
Klebsiella, and Escherichia).
• As organic acids accumulate and the pH decreases below 6,
the LAB, principally Lb. plantarum, dominate the fermentation
to the exclusion of the other gram-positive and gram-negative
microbes.
• Yeast species may also be present (Candida, Pichia,
Saccharomyces, and others) and contribute desirable flavor
characteristics to the brined olives.
 PICKLES
• Region: North America,
Germany
• Major Ingredients:
Cucumber, Spices, Dill etc
• Usage: Salad, Side Dish
• Microorganisms:
Lactobacillus brevis,
Pediococcus cerevisiae and
Lb. plantarum,
• Starter Culture: Natural
Microflora, commercial
starter cultures are available.
Sometimes backslopping.
 PICKLES

Fermentation
Washed, chopped
Fresh Cucumber Wooden Barrels,
or sliced
23-24C, 8-10% Salt

Pasteurization Packaging Periodic Degassing

 Definition:
• “It is the process of preserving food by anaerobic
fermentation in brine to produce lactic acid, or
marinating and storing it in an acid solution, usually
vinegar (acetic acid). The resulting food is called a
PICKLE”.
• The term pickle is derived from the Dutch word
pekel, Canada, the word pickle alone almost always
refers to a pickled cucumber. Other types of pickles
will be described as "pickled onion," "pickled
cauliflower," etc.
 SALIENT FEATURES:

• Brining or Corning.
• Food salty or sour taste.
• PH less than 4.6. 
• Preserve perishable foods
• Antimicrobial herbs and spices.
 Pickling Equipment:
• Utensils made of zinc, iron, brass, copper, or
galvanized metal should not be used.
• For fresh-pack pickling large container made of
stainless steel, glassware.
• For fermenting and brining, a crock or stone jar, an
un chipped enamel-lined pan, a glass jar, a bowl,
used for small quantities.
 Pickles with Salt Content:
• Fresh-pack pickles may be prepared safely
with reduced or no salt; they are acidified
quickly with vinegar.
• salt used in making brine pickles and
fermented sauerkraut .The function of salt in
fermented foods is to encourage the growth
of desirable bacteria
 Key ingredients in pickling
Ingredient Why used???

 Acts as a preservative by encouraging the

growth of desirable bacteria (and inhibiting
undesirable bacteria) which in turn produce
Salt lactic acid, a preservative.
 Helps draw juices and sugar from the produce to
make a brine.
 Adds flavor and crispness.

 Gives pickles a tart taste.

Vinegar  Acts as a preservative due to the acidity of
vinegar.
 Sugar  Sweetens taste; counteracts vinegar.

Spices/Herbs  Adds flavor

Water  Makes liquid portion of brine.

 Improves pickle firmness for fermented

Alum pickles; does not improved firmness of
quick-process pickles.

Lime  Improves pickle firmness.

 Trouble-shooting pickles
NOTE: These pickles are safe to eat even though they may not look
too good.
This happened: Because of this:

 Vinegar or salt solution too

strong.
Shriveled pickles
 Overcooking or over
processing.

 Poory developed cucumbers.

 Cucumbers too ripe.
Hollow pickles  Cucumbers held too long
before pickling.
 Fermentation too rapid.
 SHALGAM
Shalgam is a traditional Turkish fermented
beverage in which mainly lactic acid bacteria
play an important role. It is a red colored, turbid
and sour soft beverage produced by mixing of
turnip, purple carrot, sourdough, salt, water and
fermenting for 10-12 days. Red beet can also be
used as a raw-material.
 Microorganisms
The microorganisms influenced in the
fermentation obtained from sourdough. These
are L. sanfranciscensis, L. pontis, L. brevis, L.
plantarum, L. alimentarius,L. fructivorans, L.
reuteri, L. fermentum and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and to less extent Saccharomyces
exiguous, Candida krusei and Candida milleri.
 Definition and production
According to the Turkish Standards Institution,
shalgam is defined as a beverage produced by
lactic acid fermentation of black carrot (Daucus
carota L.), turnip (Brassica rapa L.), salt and
extract of sourdough and bulgur flour. For
shalgam production, no standard manufacturing
technique is available and many different
methods can be used in production.
Production
Production
Fermented Meat
                                   

117
 1.Introduction
Meat is the flesh (muscle tissue ) of warm-blooded
animals,
but fermented specialties from poultry ( sausages as well
as cured and smoked fermented poultry) are available.

        What is fermented sausage?

A sausage is fermented if
-its pH below 5.6 and D-lactic acid content above 0.2%
-its colour is heat-stable
-its texture is no longer crumble
-its aroma is typical
-lactic acid bacteria predominate
-Enterobacteriaceae counts are low

118
 Classification of Whole Meat Products

1) Classical Ham- Made from thigh of hog with or without bone

                   
2) Cuts of Meat-Pork
                                      
3) Other Animal Sources- beef

4) Mutton

119
 2. The history and culture related
to fermented meat
• The traditional methods which comprise reduction -
1) water activity ( drying, salting) and/ or pH
(fermentation, acidification)
  2) smoking, storage at refrigeration or freezing
temperatures,
 3) use of curing aids (nitrite and nitrate)
• meat may also contain bacterial food pathogens.
• meat has to be of high quality with regard to hygiene
and microbial counts.

120
 3. The fermentation process

Fermentation process : two types

-foods from a comminuted matrix

-whole meat products.

121
 A. Fermentation of a Comminuted meat matrix
a) Variables in sausage production
Variables include:
• The particle size of the comminuted meat and fatty tissue (1 and 30 mm)
• The selection of additives (curing salt, nitrate, ascorbic acid, sodium
glutamate and    glucono-∂-lactone -source glucose.
• The temperature /humidity (below 2to 3℃, the temperature is raised
usually to ＞ 20℃ and ＞ 28℃, but maximum higher temperatures (32
to 38℃).
• The diameter of the sausages
• The nature of the casings smoking
• Heating after fermentation
• Supporting the development of mold growth on the surface or
establishing a         special tight surface film (e. g. coating with a titanium
dioxide film)
• Dipping in antifungal preparations ( sorbic acid or pimaricin)
• pH-4.8 to 5.4

122
123
Species Employed in Meat Starter Cultures

• Bacteria: Lactic Acid Bacteria such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lb.

alimentarius, Lb. curvatus, Lb. plantarum etc, Lactococcus lactis,
Pediococcus acidilactici, P. pentosaceus

• Actinobacteria : Kocuria varians, Streptomyces griseus, Bifidobacterium

spp.

• Staphylococci: Staphylococcus xylosus, S. carnosus ssp. 

• Halomonadaceae : Halomonas elongata

• Fungi: Penicillium nalgiovense, P. chrysogenum, P. camemberti

• Yeasts: Debaryomyces hansenii, Candida famata

124
 B. Fermentation of Whole Meat Products (HAM)

• curing by salting (with or without the use of nitrite and/or nitrate)

• to achieve a water activity of ∠0.96 (equivalent to 4.5% sodium
chloride)
• temperatures (50C)―the salt will diffuse to the deepest part of meat
• overcoming the food poisoning through Clostridium botulinum
contamination.
• after equilibrating the salt concentration and flavor development, the
temperature     is raised to 15 to 250C to ripen the ham.
• optimum flavor has no changed at least 6 to 9 months, maximum 18th
month.
• at the end of ripening step, the moisture has been reduced by 25% and
salt 4.5 to    6%)

125
4. Composition and changes during fermentation

• growth of LAB and concomitant acidification of the product.

• reduction of nitrates to nitrites and formation of

nitrosomyoglobin

• solubilization and gelification of miofibrillar and sarcoplasmic

proteins

• degradation of proteins and lipids

• dehydration

126
a) Fermentation Microflora
• sausage minces favor the growth of Micrococcacea and Lactobacilli (5×10 8
to  109 CFU/g)
• Micrococcacea such as Kocuria varians, Staphylococcus carnosus or S.
xylosus       grow to cell counts 106 to 107 CFU/g, when nitrate cure is
applied.
• inhibited the growth of organism
• the predominant microorganism is isolated
• growth of Staphylococcus occurs
• Penicillium constituted 96% of the microflora
• the nontoxigenic species Penicillium nalgiovense was most frequently
isolated
• the halotolerant yeast (Debaryomyces hansenii) is the predominant

127
b) Acidification, Dehydration, and Microbial Antagonism

• isoelectric point of meat proteins (pH 5.3 to 5.4)

• increase the ionic strength
• sodium chloride and lactate in fermented sausages develop taste of the
product.
• acidification and drying are importance for inhibition of the growth of
pathogens.
• low pH and water activity exert an inhibitory effect towards pathogens.
• lactic and acetic acids are the major fermentation products
• the dry matter content 50-75%
• the water activity values .86-.92 depend on ripening

128
c) Proteolytic and Lipolytic Degradation during fermentation

• Peptides and amino acids accumulate to levels of about 1% dry matter

• Peptides and amino acids act as flavor enhancers and synergists.
• excess proteolysis may result in bitter and metabolic off-flavor
• amino acids and peptides are utilized by microorganisms for the conversion to       flavor
volatiles
• the bioactive peptides is influenced by lactic fermentation
• Kocuria varians is inhibited by environmental conditions
• Lb. casei utilizes peptides released from pork muscles
• fat content 40-60% of dry matter
• long chain fatty acids are released from triglycerides and phospholipids
• free fatty acids are found 5% of the total fatty acids.
• polyunsaturated fatty acids is higher than saturated fatty acids.  

129
d) Generation of Flavor volatiles

Routes:
• by lipolysis and hydrolysis of phospholipids, followed by
oxidation of free fatty      acids.
• microorganisms produce organic acids: convert amino
acids and peptides to         flavor-active alcohols,
aldehydes, and acids
• modify products of lipid oxidation
• aroma is determined by the addition of spices, smoking,
or surface-ripening with     yeasts or molds.

130
e) Biogenic amines

• histamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, tryptamine,

putrescine and cadaverine not    exceeding 100mg/kg.

• are mainly derived from bacterial decarboxylation of amino

acids

• putrescine and cadaverine are produced by the Gram-

negative spoilage flora

• starter cultures inhibit rapidly metabolism of Gram negative

bacteria

• effectively reduce tyramine levels in fermented sausages

131
Product Diversity and Sensory Properties
The main desirable effects of starter micro-organisms on
flavor and taste of fermented meats are
• formation of lactic acid
• transformation of compounds from abiotic breakdown of
lipids
• degradation of peptides and amino acids formed by meat
proteases
Indirect effects are
• consumption of oxygen
• reduction of nitrate
• protein degradation by mould proteases

132
 Sucuk
• One of the most important and widely
consumed traditional Turkish meat product,
• Dried, uncooked, cured and fermented
sausage,
• Produced from beef or buffalo meat Consist of
ground meat and sheep tail fat and curing
agents (nitrite and nitrate), with various spices
including cumin, garlic, salt, and black and red
pepper
133
Sucuk processing stages
Stuffing sausage mixture into natural sausage casings
Fermentation at 22-23ºC by either microorganisms
naturally present or added starter cultures
Drying for several weeks at ambient temperature and
humidity
due to fermentation, the final product has an
increased shelf life as a consequence of the
inhibition of the pathogenic and spoilage bacteria,

134