Lecture 5

Reserahc and Methodlogy

Research
• To explore new knowledge or to verify existing knowledge in order to extend
theoretical framework of existing, reserahcer use systematic process which is
called as “RESEARCH”
• Purpose of research : Aims and goals
• Undertsading for its own sake (general goal)
• Theoretical goal  discovery of new theories falsification or modification of
existing theaories
• Pragamtic goal  solution of social problems or gaining knqoldge for applied
anthropology, which is followed by p[ragmatic goals
• Political goals  research which is done to make social policies
• Economic goal  understading and discovering econmic policies.
Motives of research
• Education motive: e.g. thesis work of eduation
• Magical motive: research to support other research e.g. lesille white
did for henry morgan, or review studies being done all over the world.
• Personal motive: to promote own knowledge
• Institutional motive: it it’s a job to do research
• Political motive: to support politics, parties e.g. gatherinf information
before election
• Tectical motive: to settle down strategic ematters e.g. Usama bin
laden episode
Types of research
• Longitudinal: Longterm/ with interval of time research
• Description: to describe social system . Events e.g. marriage
• Classified: to understand something deeply and make categories in
order to demonstrate differences.
• Explanatory: to explain social aspects
• Exploratory: t dig into something newparticipatory:: to get knowledge
or doing research by participiation
• Casual: everyday learning/ finding out unconsciously (non targeted
motive)
Sources of knowledge
• Intuition (6th sense)
• Obervation
• Experimentation
• Logic and reason
• Authoirty
• Book or revelation
• Teacher or peer
• Believe system
• Traditions
• Language
• Common sense
How to carry out research In anthropology?
Steps in research design:
• 1) selection of topic: criteria, interest, institutional capacity, resources,
must be avaible , feaseabilty and time period must be adjustable within
time frame.
• 2. construiction of methodlogyL (techniques)
• Quantitative(sociology)
• Qulaitiatve (anthoropology)
• Tirangulation
• 3. sampling  itself is a quanitative method
a) Probability
b) Non-porbability
Other steps
• 4. data collection
• 5. data processing
• Interpretation
• Analyses or decoding report writing / thesis
Selection of topic and construction of
methodology
• Justification of topic through investigation and literature revies.
• What will we do
• How and what should be done
• With hel of supervisor
• problem./ purpose statement
• obejctive./ aims
• Draw methodology(planning)
• Theoretical construction
• Connectivty with theories
• Verification / nullification
Quantitative : drawing hypothesis
• Null : 1st calculative approach about the problem
• Alterative : 2nd/ opposite to null
• Stratified hypothesis : mostly used for statistical and demographic
scineces e.g. population of Pakistan
• Working hypothesis: when you have no idea/ no specific approach or
little idea about research  mostly in social sciences
Qualitative Hypothesis
• Problem statement
• Purpose of statement
• Add more data
• Hypothesis: is an estimated and calculated guess about a certain
phenomena, obersvation or event.
•
Sampling
• Can be changed and reset in qualitative research at any time
according to situation
• But this luxury is not available in quantitive research, the sample
choosed first time will remain constant until end of research.
• Sampling : a smallest and true representative unit of a problem is
called sampling e.g. Atom is a sample of element
• A small representative part of greater goal is called sampling /
aggregate part of a greater goal.
Types of sampling
• Probability sampling
Lottery method: by chance
Random no, methods: equal probabaility
Computer method: random selection
Systematic : in a serious system
Stratified L in groups, classes , strat
Multistage: stage wise
Clusture: different clusture form, different aream place
Multiface:in phases , one by one
Non-probability sampling
• Accidental : just by accidental selection
• Purposal: purpose based / fixed
• Quota : by dividing no. / fixing nmber for each area according to its
value
• Snowball: with time debth/size of sample increase like snowball
• Theoretical : theories sampling
Observation
• A process of (see, watch, focus) to build a deep vision.
• A systematic process, tools
• Participatory observation: on filed participation , especial importance for
anthropology
• Process used specially in qualitative research
• Conducted in natural settings (normal not in crises situation)
• Obervation deisnged to study social events under all conditions to bring data
close to reality.

• Non-participatory: By just observing without participation.

Some other observation

• Hidden observation : hidden identity (crime in anthropology)

• Open observation  full open identity
• Scinetific observation
• Naïve observation  simple observation
• Passive observation  without participation
• Active observation  active participation
Problems in observation
• Basiness : easy , less expensive, less time, basic tools
• Personal error: illusion, wrong entry
• No control (unlimited data)
• Cannot study opinion and attitudes directly (unpredictable events)
• Not valid for extensive events / large groups study.
Tools used to conduct research
• Senses & surveys
• Questioniar
• Interview
• Focused group discussion
• Case study
• observation
Senses and surveys
e.g. in demographic studies of livestock, construction and income
information.
Chart filled by sampling indiviuals
Identif topic
Society selction
Moslly quantitative tool.
Questioniare  designing question according to topic
Sturctural (close ended)  age, yes, no
Unstructured (open ended)  opinion based
Types on the basis of format and order
• Funnel format : general to specific
• Inverted funnel formatL specific to general
• Diamond format <>: specific to genral to specific
• X-format: general to specific and again to general
• Box format : all question kept at same level
• Mixed format : all above , any could be used.
• Procedure for questionnaire is totally different
• Delivery process also differs
• Instruction about topic and form filling
•\
• Every questionnaire has cover later (instruction guidnles for respondants
• Ethics of rsearch will also be added
• Main criteria for research topic
• Rights of respondants is also added in coer letters
• Anonimity
• Confidentiality
• Rights to anser or deny
• Userability of anser of respondant
Size of questionnaire L the maximum questions which are required and
the minimum question whivh can cover the whole topic.

• Interview: a direct conversation between a researcher and a

respondant
• 2 elements
• Intervie  conductor
• Interviewer  respondant
Types of interview
• Structural  decided questions
• Unstructured  non-decided questions (conversation type)
• Semi-structured  mixed questions
• Delphic  multistage /version of ethnographic interview/
autobiographic interview.
• Case studies  to take an issue, involve and study all agents,
charcaters, variable regardiging thatg issue. Mini research.
How to conduct interview
• Choose interview sites
• Prepare questions
• Fixing duration and time
• Manner of interview
• Write data and jot down answers
• Analyse data and further evolve questions (if any)
• how to end interview: bring tap recorder back,
• Close questionin
• Apointment for nect time
• Videos/ notes presentation to respondent
• Go to supervior for intellectual discussion
• Chechk relevance of data
• Filter data
• New questionair (if needed for next time)
Other types of interview
• Daignostic interview
• Ethnographic interview
• Group interview
• Hard interview
• Open Interview
• Close interview
• Unique interview
• Telephonic interview
• Problem centered interview
Indebth interview * most important in
anthropology
• Intensive interview
• To find rootcause
• Extensive time
• No setting question pattern
• On spot questions
• In depth understading of issue.