Chapter 3 & 4

Adama Science and Technology
University
SoMCME
Department of Design and Manufacturing
Introduction to Mechatronics (MEng4204)

By: Tesfaye Olana (MSc)
(Design of Mechanical Systems, Mechanical Engineer)

tesfitti2016@gmail.com
2021, Adama
Chapter 3
Dynamic system: Modeling and
Control system
Objective
• Modeling techniques for mechanical systems will be
discussed in this chapter.
• Mechanical systems are in either translational or
rotational motion, or both
• Mechanical elements, include mass elements,
spring elements, and damper elements.
• For rotational systems, moment equations are used
to obtain dynamic models.
08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 2-3

A) Mathematical modeling
• A mathematical model of a mechanical system can be

constructed based on physical laws(such as Newton’s
laws and the conservation of energy) that the elements
and their interconnections must obey.
• Elements can be broadly divided into three classes
according to whether element forces are proportional
to accelerations, proportional to displacements, or
proportional to velocities.
• Correspondingly, they can be divided into elements that
store and release kinetic energy, store and release
potential energy, and dissipate energy.
08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 2-4

Mechanical systems
• The basic building blocks of springs, dashpots and masses.

• Springs represent the stiffness of a system, dashpots the
forces opposing motion, i.e. frictional or damping
effects, and masses the inertia or resistance to acceleration
08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 5

Rotational and translational system
• The spring, dashpot and mass are the basic building blocks
for mechanical systems where forces and straight line
displacements are involved without any rotation
• If there is rotation then the equivalent three building blocks
are a torsional spring, a rotary damper and the moment of
inertia,

Cont…
• The torsional spring and the rotating mass store energy
• The energy stored by a mass rotating with an angular

velocity v is the kinetic energy E, where
• The power P dissipated by the rotatory damper when

rotating with an angular velocity v is

Cont.

Building up a mechanical system
• Many systems can be considered to be essentially a mass, a

spring and dashpot combined in the way
• A diagram of the mass and just the forces acting on it is
called a free-body diagram

Cont.
• Net force applied to the system
• This net force is the force applied to the mass to cause it to

accelerate. Thus

Modeling of mechanical system
• Modeling of half of motor cycle

Example
• Driving differential equation

Cont.
• Rotating mass at the end of a shaft

Example
• Derive differential equation for the following system

Example
• Derive differential equation

Example

B) Control Modes
• There are a number of ways by which a control unit can react
to an error signal and supply an output for correcting elements.
• TYPES OF CONTROL MODES:
(i) The Two – Step Mode:
• controller is essentially just a switch which is activated by the error
signal and supplied just an on-off correcting signal.
• Example: bimetallic thermoset at that might be used with a simple
temperature control system.
• This is just a switch which is switched on or off according to the
temperature then the bimetallic ship is in an off position and the
heater is off.
• If the room temperature falls below the required temperature then the
bimetallic strip moves into an on position and the heater is switched
fully on.
• The controller in this case can be in only two positions, on or off.
Temperature control system

(ii) The Proportional Mode (P):
• The proportional mode (P) which produces a control
action that is proportional to the error. i.e. the bigger the
error, the bigger the output from the controller.
• Thus as the error is reduced the amount of correction is
reduced and the correcting process slows down.

• Change in controller output = Kp
% Change in controller output from set point = Kp * % change in error K
=100 / Proportional Band Change in Output (s)
= Kp * E(s)
Transformer function= Change in Output (s) / E(s)
Electronic Proportional Controller

Cont.
(iii) Derivative mode
• produces a control action that is proportional
to the rate at which are errors is changing.
• When there is a sudden change in the error
signal the controller gives a large correcting
signal
• When there is a gradual change only a small
correcting signal is produced.
• Derivative mode of control the change in
controller output from the set point value is
proportional to the rate of change with time
of the error signal
Cont.
(iv) The integral mode

• produces a control action that is
proportional to the integral of the error
with time.
• Thus a constant error signal will
produce an increasing correcting signal.
• The correction continues to increase as
long the error persists.
• The integral mode of control is one
where the rate of change of the control
output is proportional to the input error
signal.

Digital controller
• The term digital control is used when the digital controller,

basically a microprocessor is in control of the closed-loop
control system.
• The controller receives inputs from sensors, executes control
programs and provides the output to the correction elements.
• The controllers require inputs which are digital, process the
information in digital form and give an output in digital form.
• Since many control systems have analogue measurements an
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) is used for the inputs.
• A clock supplies a pulse at regular time intervals and dictates
when samples of the controlled variable are taken by the ADC.

Cont.
• The samples are then converted to digital signals which are

compared by the microprocessor with the set point value to
give the error signal.
• The microprocessor can then initiate a control mode to
process the error signal and give a digital output.
• The control mode used by the microprocessor is determined
by the program of instruction used by the microprocessor for
processing the digital signals, i.e., the software.
• The digital output, generally after processing by a digital-to-
analogue converter since correcting elements generally
require analogue signals can be used to initiate the correcting
action.
A digital controller basically operates the
following cycle of events:
• Samples the measured value.
• Compares it with the set value and establishes the error.
• Carries out calculations based on the error value and
stored values of previous inputs and outputs to obtain the
output signal Sends the output signal to the DAC.
• Waits until the next sample time before repeating the
cycle.

Velocity control
• Consider the problem of controlling the movement of a

load by means of a motor.
• Time will thus be taken for the system to respond to an
input signal.
• A higher speed of respond, with fewer oscillations, can
be obtained by using PD rather than just P control.
• There is, however, alternative of achieving the same
effect and this is by the use of a second feedback loop
which gives a measurement related to the rate at which
the displacement is changing.
• This is termed velocity feedback.

Cont.
• The velocity feedback might involve the use
of a tachogenerator giving a signal proportional to the
rotational speed of the motor shaft, and
• hence the rate at which the displacement is changing,
and the displacement might be monitored using a rotary
potentiometer.

Adaptive control
• An adaptive control system which 'adapts' to changes

and changes its parameters to fit the circumstances
prevailing.
• The adaptive control system is based on the use of a
microprocessor as the controller.
• Such a device enables the control mode and the control
parameters used to be adapted to fit the circumstances,
modifying them as the circumstances change.

Cont.
• Adaptive control systems can take a number of forms.

Three commonly used forms are:
• gain-scheduled control;
• self-tuning;
• model-reference adaptive systems.
• An adaptive control system can be considered to have
three stages of operation.
• Starts to operate with controller conditions set on the basis of an assumed
condition.
• The desired performance is continuously compared with the actual
system performance.
• The control system mode and parameters are automatically and
continuously adjusted in order to minimise the difference between the
desired and actual system performance

(i) Gain – Scheduled Control:
• With gain-scheduled control or, as it is sometimes
referred to, pre-programmed adaptive control, pre-set
changes in the parameters of the controller are made on
the basis of some auxiliary measurement of some
process variable.
• The term gain-scheduled control was used because the
only parameter originally adjusted was gain.

(ii) Self tuning
• continuously tunes its own parameters based on monitoring
the variable that the system is controlling and the output from
the controller.
• often found in commercial PID controller, it generally then
being referred to as auto-tuning.
• When the operator presses a button, the controller injects a
small disturbance into the system and measures the response.
• Response is compared to the desired response and the
control parameters adjusted, by modified Ziegler-Nichol rule,
to bring the actual response closer to the desired response.

(iii) Model-Reference Adaptive Systems:
• The model-reference system an accurate model of the
system is developed.
• The set value is then used as an input to both the actual
and the model systems and the difference between the
actual output and the output from the model compared.
• The difference in these signals is then used in adjusts the
parameter of the controller to minimise the difference.

Operational amplifier
• A system which has an input and an
output
• The voltage gain of the amplifier being
the ratio of the output and input
voltages when each is measured relative
to the earth
• The input impedance of an amplifier is
defined as the input voltage divided by
the input current
• The output impedance being the output
voltage divided by the output current.
• The basis of many signal conditioning
modules is the operational amplifier

The following indicates the types of circuits that
might be used with operational amplifiers when
used as signal conditioners
1. An Amplifier or an operational amplifier (op-amp)
• It is commonly used in the automation, control and other
electronic circuits for marine applications.
• The applied input signal is usually a voltage or a current
signal.
• Used to produce an output signal larger than that of the
input signal.

2. The Summing Amplifier.
• The Summing Amplifier is another type of operational
amplifier circuit configuration that is used to combine
the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single
output voltage.

3. In inverting amplifier
• In inverting amplifier input and output are out of phase
by 180 degrees
• inverting amplifier are mostly widely used in oscillator
circuits to satisfy barkaushen criteria so that sustained
oscillations are produced .

4. Integrating and differentiating amplifiers
• It is a circuit configuration which produces output
voltage amplitude that is proportional to the rate of
change of the applied input voltage.
• An op-amp differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which
uses a capacitor in series with the input voltage.

Cont.
5. Combinations of modes:
• proportional plus derivative (PD) modes,
• proportional plus integral (PI) modes,
• proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID) modes.
• The term three-term controller is used for PID control.

Cont.
• Chapter 2: Actuator

Chapter 4
Programming logic controllers (PLC)

Introduction
• The modern programmable logic controller (PLC) is the

successor of relay-based controls.
• The technological shift began in the 1960s, when the
limitations of electromechanical relay-based controllers
drove General Motors to search for electronic alternatives.
• Most PLC components are in card form that can be
interchanged quickly in the event of a failure.
• A typical PLC application has about one hundred inputs and
outputs, but the scale of the applications varies widely.
• A small PLC costing $200 might have six inputs and four
outputs.

Cont.
• A large application might involve multiple PLCs working

together over an entire plant and collectively have tens of
thousands of inputs and outputs.
• In general, the aggregated cost of PLC hardware per input
and output is approximately $10–$50.
• This does not include the cost of
• sensors (typically $50–$100), actuators (typically $50–$200),
• installation (typically $10–$100), design, or programming.

Cont.
• Manufacturing control systems always require logical

control and sometimes continuous control.
• Logical control involves the examination of binary inputs
(on or off) from sensors and setting binary outputs to drive
actuators.
• A simple example is a photosensor that detects a box on a
conveyor and actuates an air cylinder to divert the box.
• Continuous control systems are used less frequently because
of their higher costs and increased complexity.

Cont.
• Every PLC can be programmed with ladder logic.

• Ladder logic uses input contacts (shown with two
vertical lines) and output coils (shown with a circle).
• A contact with a slash through it represents a normally
closed contact.
• In ladder logic, the left-hand rail is energized.
• When the contacts are closed in the right combinations,
power can flow through the coil to the right-hand neutral
rail.

Definition of PLC
• is a digital electronic device
• uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to
implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting
and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes and has
been specifically designed to make programming easy.
• the term logic is used because the programming is primarily
concerned with implementing logic and switching operations
• Input devices, e.g. switches, and
• Output devices, e.g. motors,
• Its greater advantage
• possible to modify a control system without having to rewire the
connections to the input and output devices
• widely used for the implementation of logic control functions
because they are easy to use and program.

Basic components of PLC
• The PLC hardware system consists of the basic

components
a) Processor
b) Memory
c) Power Supply
d) Input/Output modules
e) Programming device
f) Monitor

Cont.
• PLCs are similar to computers but have certain features

which are specific to their use as controllers.
• These are:
• they are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations,
temperature, humidity and noise;
• the interfacing for inputs and outputs is inside the
controller;
• they are easily programmed.

Basic PLC structure

Cont.
• Example of block diagram of a computer controlled

application

Cont.
• When a computer is applied to a control application, there

are a few required specifications.
• The system must always remain responsive and in control of
the process.
• This requires that the control software be real-time so that it
will respond to events within a given period of time, or at
regular intervals.
• The systems are also required to fail safely.
• This is done with thermal monitoring for overheating, power
level detection for imminent power loss, or with watchdog
timers for unresponsive programs.

PLC Logic functions
• Logic Systems:
• Combinational logic; Sequential logic; Flip-flops; counters/timers; PLC
(components, programming, memory organization, setup, communications); System
Interfaces.
• Traditionally, digital systems have been classified into two general

classes of circuits:
• Combinational systems and
• Sequential systems.
• Combinational systems are logic circuits in which outputs are determined

by the present values of inputs.

Cont.
• On the other hand, sequential systems represent the class of circuits
in which the outputs depend not only on the present value of the
inputs, but also on the past behavior of the circuit.
• In most systems a clock signal is used to control the operation of a

sequential logic.
• Such a system is called a synchronous sequential circuit.
• When no clock signal is used, the system is referred to as

asynchronous

Synchronous Sequential Systems
• The circuit has a set of primary inputs X and produces a set of
primary outputs Z.
• In addition, it has sets of secondary inputs Q+ and outputs Q.
• These sets of signals are inputs and outputs to state (or
memory) elements or devices called flip-flops (FFs) or
latches.
• The outputs of these devices constitute the present states Q+ ,
while the inputs constitute the next states Q .
General model for sequential circuits

Cont.
• There are several types of such devices, as well as many
variations of these types, namely, set-reset (SR), delay (D),
trigger (T), and JK (a combination of SR and T) FFs and
latches. Table 1 shows the behavior of each of these types..

Cont.
• Logic gates are the basic building blocks for digital
electronic circuits
AND Gate
• when both input A and input B are high, the output have
high; for all other conditions it gives a low output

OR Gate
• An OR gate with inputs A and B gives an output of a 1 when

A or B is 1

NOT gate
• A NOT gate has just one input and one output, giving a 1
output when the input is 0 and a 0 output when the input is 1.
• The NOT gate gives an output which is the inversion of the
input and is called an inverter

NAND gate
• The NAND gate can be considered as a combination of an AND
gate followed by a NOT gate
• Thus when input A is 1 and input B is 1, there is an output of 0, all
other inputs giving an output of 1
• The NAND gate is just the AND gate truth table with the outputs
inverted.

NOR gate
• The NOR gate can be considered as a combination of an OR gate
followed by a NOT gate
• Thus when input A or input B is 1 there is an
output of 0. It is just the OR gate with the outputs inverted.
• An alternative way of considering the gate is as an OR gate with a NOT
gate applied to invert both the inputs before they reach the OR gate
The Boolean equation for the NOR gate is

XOR gate
• The EXCLUSIVE-OR gate (XOR) can be considered to be

an OR gate with a NOT gate applied to one of the inputs to
invert it before the inputs reach the OR gate

Summary of PLC
• PLCs and embedded controllers are complementary

technologies and, when applied strategically, they will both
provide low cost and reliable solutions to control problems.
Figure 8.4 shows the relative trade-

offs between the controllers

Cont.
• In general, an embedded controller requires more initial

development time than a PLC for a simple system.
• As the system grows more complex, the embedded
controller benefits from the existence of software libraries
and design tools.
• When using a PLC the cost of the purchased hardware will
always be higher per unit.
• The development costs for an embedded computer will
usually be higher, but these become minimal when
amortized over a large number of units.

Cont.
• As a result, embedded controllers are typically selected for

applications that will be mass-produced and allow a greater
development time, such as a toy robot.
• PLCs are often selected for applications that only require a

few controllers and are to be completed in a relatively short
time, such as the production machines to make a toy.

Bond graph
• A bond graph is a physics-based modeling tool that provides

an energy-based topological framework for the modeling of
physical systems.
• It enhances the visual understanding of these systems
through the visual indication of the cause and effect
relationships of the energy transfer between the subsystem
variables.
• A bond graph, as a powerful modeling tool, has known great
development and enjoyed a well-deserved popularity in
many engineering disciplines

Bond graph theory
• A bond graph is an engineering tool based on the description of

physical systems by analysing the exchange of energy within.
• This exchange determines the dynamic behaviour of the
systems.
• Bond graph modeling involves devices, their connections,
directed power transfers, and causality strokes.
• The power or the energy flow is represented by a half arrow
called a power bond.
• Each bond is associated with two variables: effort and flow.
• The direction of the flow variable is given by the causality
information.

Cont.
• Graphically, the causality is indicated by putting a stroke near

the element which controls the flow as shown in Figure 1.
• The energy flow in a system is described at any time by the

value of the power, which is the product of the effort variable
by the flow variable.

Cont.
• Therefore, a bond graph can represent systems from

different domains in a unified way.
• Table 1 shows the effort and the flow variables of the main
physical domains

Chapter 5 & 6
Design of mechatronics system
&
Introduction to data acquisition

Chapter 3 &amp; 4

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Adama Science and Technology

Introduction to Mechatronics (MEng4204)

(Design of Mechanical Systems, Mechanical Engineer)

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 2-3

• A mathematical model of a mechanical system can be

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 2-4

• The basic building blocks of springs, dashpots and masses.

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 5

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 6

• The torsional spring and the rotating mass store energy

• The energy stored by a mass rotating with an angular

• The power P dissipated by the rotatory damper when

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 7

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 8

• Many systems can be considered to be essentially a mass, a

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 9

• Net force applied to the system

• This net force is the force applied to the mass to cause it to

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 10

• Modeling of half of motor cycle

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 11

• Driving differential equation

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 12

• Rotating mass at the end of a shaft

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 13

• Derive differential equation for the following system

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 14

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 15

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 16

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 18

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 19

Electronic Proportional Controller

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 20

(iv) The integral mode

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 22

• The term digital control is used when the digital controller,

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 23

• The samples are then converted to digital signals which are

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 25

• Consider the problem of controlling the movement of a

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 26

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 27

• An adaptive control system which 'adapts' to changes

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 28

• Adaptive control systems can take a number of forms.

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 29

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 30

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 31

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 32

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 33

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 34

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 35

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 36

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 37

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 38

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 39

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 40

• The modern programmable logic controller (PLC) is the

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 41

• A large application might involve multiple PLCs working

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 42

• Manufacturing control systems always require logical

08/16/2021 By: Tesfaye Olana, ASTU 2021 GC 43

• Every PLC can be programmed with ladder logic.

Chapter 3 & 4

Chapter 3 & 4