Thermal Unit Operation Lecture Note

Chapter-I
Introduction to Thermal Unit operations

‘’Heat Transfer Equipments in Thermal System’’
Thermal Equipments
08/20/2021 Thermal Unit Operations for chemical Engineers 1

Introduction
 Heat transfer - the exchange of thermal energy, between
physical systems depending on the temperature and
pressure, by dissipating heat.
 Heat transfer always occurs from a region of high
temperature to another region of lower temperature
 The exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the
boundary between two systems which are at different
temperatures from each other or from their surroundings.
 The fundamental modes of heat transfer- conduction,
convection and radiation.

Cont’d
 Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both
systems involved according to the First Law of
Thermodynamics.
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics defines the
concept of thermodynamic entropy, by measurable heat
transfer.
 Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved
bodies and the surroundings reach the same
temperature.
 Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change
in volume in response to a change in temperature.

Cont’d
 Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal
energy across a well-defined boundary around a
thermodynamic system.
 The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of
work that a thermodynamic system can perform.
 Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential, designated
by the letter "H", that is the sum of the internal
energy of the system (U) plus the product of
pressure (P) and volume (V). Joule is a unit to
quantify energy, work, or the amount of heat.

Cont’d
 Heat transfer is a process function (or path function),
as opposed to functions of state; therefore, the
amount of heat transferred in a thermodynamic
process that changes the state of a system depends on
how that process occurs, not only the net difference
between the initial and final states of the process,
 Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is also
calculated with the heat transfer coefficient, the
proportionality between the heat flux and the
thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat
also considered.
Cont’d
 Heat flux is a quantitative, vectorial representation
of the heat flow through a surface.
 In thermal unit operation context, the term heat is
taken as synonymous to thermal energy.
 This usage has its origin in the historical
interpretation of heat as a fluid (caloric) that can be
transferred by various modes.
Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

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Cont’d
 The transport equations for thermal energy (Fourier's law),
mechanical momentum (Newton's law for fluids), and mass
transfer (Fick's laws of diffusion) are similar, and analogies
among these three transport processes have been developed to
facilitate prediction of conversion from any one to the others.
 Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use,
conversion, and exchange of heat transfer.
 As such, heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the
economy.
 Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as
thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation,
and transfer of energy by phase changes.
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Why we need thermal unit operations?
Recognize what is heat exchanger
Differentiate numerous types of heat exchanger,
their classification and their applications
Know the heat transfer equipment terminologies
Know the primary consideration in the selection
and design of heat exchangers.
Rating of HXs and other consideration designs and
sizing of thermal unit operations should be deal
with it.

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Transfer of heat daily example

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Industrial process of thermal unit operation

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Cont’d

What is a heat transfer equipment?
An equipment that permits efficient transfer of heat
from a hot fluid to a cold fluid without any or with
direct contact of fluid.
Such an equipment is called Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger is a device that is used to
transfer thermal energy (enthalpy) between two or
more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or
between solid particulates and a fluid, at different
temperatures and in thermal contact.

Aim and Application of HE
 Typical applications involve heating or cooling of a
fluid stream of concern and evaporation or
condensation of single- or multicomponent fluid
streams.
 In other applications, the objective may be to recover
or reject heat, or sterilize, pasteurize, fractionate,
distill, concentrate, crystallize, or control a process
fluid.
 Common examples of heat exchangers are shell-and
tube exchangers, automobile radiators, condensers,
evaporators, air preheaters, and cooling towers.
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Cont’d
• There could be internal thermal energy sources in the
exchangers, such as in electric heaters and nuclear fuel
elements.
• Combustion and chemical reaction may take place within
the exchanger, such as in boilers, fired heaters, and
fluidized-bed exchangers.
• Mechanical devices may be used in some exchangers such
as in scraped surface exchangers, agitated vessels, and
stirred tank reactors.

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Cont’d
Heat exchanger found applications in almost all
– Chemical and petrochemical plants
– Air Conditioning Systems
– Power production
– Waste Heat recovery
– Automobile Radiator
– Central Heating System
– Electronic Parts

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Different Terminologies of Heat Transfer Equipment
• Heat exchanger: both sides single-phase and process streams
• Cooler: one stream a process fluid and the other cooling water or
air.
• Heater: one stream a process fluid and the other a hot utility, such
as steam or hot oil.
• Condenser: one stream a condensing vapor and the other cooling
water or air.
• Chiller: one stream a process fluid being condensed at sub-
atmospheric temperatures and the other a boiling refrigerant or
process stream.
• Reboiler: one stream a bottoms stream from a distillation column
and the other a hot utility (steam or hot oil) or a process stream.

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Chapter-II
Heat Exchanger Classification
Heat exchangers are classified according to
 Transfer process
 Number of fluids
 Degree of surface compactness
 Construction
 Flow arrangements
 Heat transfer mechanisms

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Classification of HEs in Chart form

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Classification by Transfer Processes
Classification by Transfer process

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1. Indirect contact type

The fluid streams remain separate and the heat
transfers continuously through a dividing wall into and out
of the wall in a transient manner.

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…
1. Indirect contact type
a) Direct transfer type heat exchanger
b) Storage type heat exchanger
c) Fluidized bed heat exchanger
a) Direct Transfer Type Heat Exchanger
Heat transfers continuously from the hot fluid to the cold
fluid through a dividing wall.
No direct mixing of the fluids because each fluid flows in
separate fluid passages.

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…
It is also known as recuperator.
Examples: Tubular exchangers, plate and frame heat
exchangers and extended surface exchangers.
Tubular Exchanger Plate and Frame Exchanger

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…
b) Storage Type Heat Exchanger (Regenerative Heat Exchanger)
– Both fluids flow alternatively through the same flow passages, and hence
heat transfer is intermittent.
– The heat transfer surface (or flow passages) is generally cellular in structure
and is referred to as a matrix, or it is a permeable (porous) solid material,
referred to as a packed bed.
– When hot gas flows over the heat transfer surface (through flow passages),
the thermal energy from the hot gas is stored in the matrix wall, and thus
the hot gas is being cooled during the matrix heating period.
– As cold gas flows through the same passages later (i.e., during the matrix
cooling period), the matrix wall gives up thermal energy, which is absorbed
by the cold fluid.
– Thus, heat is not transferred continuously through the wall as in a direct-
transfer type exchanger (recuperator), but the corresponding thermal
energy is alternately stored and released by the matrix wall.

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b) Storage Type Heat Exchanger (Regenerative Heat Exchanger)
Continuous-passage matrices for a rotary regenerator: (a)

notched plate; (b) triangular passage.
Fixed Bed Regenerator

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…
– Regenerative heating was one of the most important

technologies developed during the Industrial Revolution
when it was used in the hot blast process on blast
furnaces.
– It was later used in glass and steel making, to increase
the efficiency of open hearth furnaces, and in high
pressure boilers and chemical and other applications,
where it continues to be important today.

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…
c) Fluidized bed heat exchanger
– one side of a two-fluid
exchanger is immersed in a
bed of finely divided solid
material, such as a tube
bundle immersed in a bed of
sand or coal particles.
– The common applications are
drying, mixing, adsorption,
reactor engineering, coal
combustion, and waste heat
recovery
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…
2. Direct-Contact Heat Exchanger

– Two fluid streams come into direct contact, exchange
heat, and are then separated.
– Common applications of involve mass transfer in addition to
heat transfer, such as in evaporative cooling and rectification.
– However, the applications are limited to those cases
where a direct contact of two fluid streams is permissible.

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…
a) Immiscible Fluid Exchangers
b) Gas–Liquid Exchangers
c) Liquid–Vapor Exchangers
a) Immiscible Fluid Exchangers
• In this type, two immiscible fluid streams are brought into
direct contact.
• These fluids may be single-phase fluids, or they may involve
condensation or vaporization.
• Condensation of organic vapors and oil vapors with water or
air are typical examples.
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…
b) Gas–Liquid Exchangers
 one fluid is a gas (more commonly, air) and the other a low-pressure
liquid (more commonly, water) and are readily separable after the
energy exchange.
 In either cooling of liquid (water) or humidification of gas (air)
applications, liquid partially evaporates and the vapor is carried
away with the gas.
 In these exchangers, more than 90% of the energy transfer is by
virtue of mass transfer (due to the evaporation of the liquid), and
convective heat transfer is a minor mechanism.
 A ‘‘wet’’ (water) cooling tower with forced- or natural-draft airflow
is the most common application.
 Other applications are the air-conditioning spray chamber, spray
drier, spray tower, and spray pond.
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…
c) Liquid–Vapor Exchangers
– In this type, typically steam is partially or fully condensed
using cooling water, or water is heated with waste steam
through direct contact in the exchanger.
– Non condensable and residual steam and hot water are
the outlet streams.
– Common examples are desuper heaters and open feed
water heaters (also known as deaerators) in power
plants.

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…
Compared to indirect contact recuperators and
regenerators, in direct-contact heat exchangers,
(1) Very high heat transfer rates are achievable,
(2) The exchanger construction is relatively inexpensive,
and
(3) The fouling problem is generally nonexistent, due to the
absence of a heat transfer surface (wall) between the
two fluids.

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Classification by Number of Fluid
 Most processes of heating, cooling, heat recovery, and heat
rejection involve transfer of heat between two fluids.
 Hence, two-fluid heat exchangers are the most common.
 Three fluid heat exchangers are widely used in cryogenics
and some chemical processes (e.g., air separation systems, a
helium–air separation unit, purification and liquefaction of
hydrogen, ammonia gas synthesis).
 Heat exchangers with as many as 12 fluid streams have
been used in some chemical process applications.

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Classification by Surface Compactness β
 Heat exchangers are characterized by a large heat transfer surface area per unit
volume of the exchanger, resulting in
 reduced space, reduce weight, reduce support structure and footprint, energy
requirements and cost, as well as improved process design and
 plant layout and processing conditions, together with low fluid inventory.
The ratio of the heat transfer surface area of a heat exchanger to its volume is
called the area density or surface compactness β.
A heat exchanger with β = 700 m2/m3 (or 200 ft2/ft3) is classified as being
compact. Examples of compact heat exchangers are car radiators ( 1000 m2/m3) and
the human lung ( 20,000 m2/m3).

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Classification by Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 The basic heat transfer mechanisms -from the fluid on
one side of the exchanger to the wall (separating the fluid
on the other side) are
– single-phase convection (forced or free),
– two-phase convection (condensation or evaporation, by forced
or free convection),
– and combined convection and radiation heat transfer.
 Any of these mechanisms individually or in combination
could be active on each fluid side of the exchanger.
 Some examples of each classification type are automotive
radiators, passenger space heaters, regenerators,
intercoolers, economizers and so on.
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Classification by Flow Arrangement

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 The choice of a particular flow arrangement is
dependent on the required exchanger
– effectiveness,
– available pressure drops,
– minimum and maximum velocities allowed,
– fluid flow paths,
– packaging envelope,
– allowable thermal stresses,
– temperature levels,
– piping and plumbing considerations,
– and other design criteria.
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Single Pass flow arrangement

A fluid is considered to have made one pass if
it flows through a section of the heat
exchanger through its full length.
a) Counterflow exchanger
 The two fluids flow parallel to each other but in opposite directions within
the core.
 Arrangement is thermodynamically superior to any other flow
arrangement.
 It is the most efficient flow arrangement, producing the highest
temperature change in each fluid compared to any other two-fluid flow
arrangements for a given overall thermal conductance (UA), fluid flow rates
and fluid inlet temperatures.
 The maximum temperature difference across the exchanger produces
minimum thermal stresses in the wall for an equivalent performance
compared to any other flow arrangements.
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…
b) Parallel flow exchanger( cocurrent parallel stream)

• The fluid streams enter together at one end, flow
parallel to each other in the same direction, and
leave together at the other end.
• This arrangement has the lowest exchanger
effectiveness among single-pass exchangers for
given overall thermal conductance and fluid flow
rates and fluid inlet temperatures.
• a large temperature difference between inlet
temperatures of hot and cold fluids exists at the
inlet side, which may induce high thermal stresses
in the exchanger wall at the inlet.

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c) Cross flow Exchanger
• The two fluids flow in directions normal to each
other.
• Thermodynamically, the effectiveness for the
cross flow exchanger falls in between that for the
Counterflow and parallel flow arrangements.
• The largest structural temperature difference
exists at the ‘‘corner’’ of the entering hot and
cold fluids.
• Most common flow arrangements used for
extended surface heat exchangers, because it
greatly simplifies the header design at the
entrance and exit of each fluid.

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…
c) Split flow Exchanger

• The shell fluid stream enters at the center of the exchanger and divides into two
streams.
• These streams flow in longitudinal directions along the exchanger length over a
longitudinal baffle, make a 180° turn at each end, flow longitudinally to the
center of the exchanger under the longitudinal baffle, unite at the center, and
leave from the central nozzle.
• The other fluid stream flows straight in the tubes.

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…
• Multipass flow arrangement
 After flowing through one full length, if the flow direction is reversed and fluid
flows through an equal- or different-sized section, it is considered to have made a
second pass (or Multipass) of equal or different size.

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Classification by construction
• Tubular Extended
– Double pipe surface
– Shell and tube Plate-fin
– Spiral tube Tube-fin
– Pipe coils Regenerative
• Plate type Rotary
– Plate and frame Fixed-matrix
– Spiral Rotating hoods
– Plate coil
– Printed circuit
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Shell and Tube and Plate and Frame HEs
Shell and Tube
Plate and Frame HEs

Double Pipe HE

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Plate-Fin HE
• Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger industrial set up

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Chapter-III
Basic design methods of heat Exchangers
The proper use of basic heat-transfer knowledge in the design of practical heat-transfer
equipment is an Art
Designers must be constantly aware of the differences between the idealized conditions for,
and under which the basic knowledge was obtained and the real conditions of the
mechanical expression of their design and its environment.
Approach to Heat-Exchanger Design
The H.E design must satisfy process and operational requirements (such as availability,
flexibility, and maintainability) and do so economically.
An important part of any design process is to consider and offset the consequences of error
-in the basic knowledge of heat transfer,
– in its subsequent integration into a design method,
– in the translation of design into equipment,
– in the operation of the equipment and the process.
• Heat-exchanger design is not a highly accurate art under the best of conditions.
Prepared by:
Solomon H
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Selection criterion for heat exchangers
1. Material of construction
2. Operating temperatures and pressures conditions
3. Flow rates
4. Flow arrangements
5. Performance parameters such as thermal effectiveness and pressure drops
6. Fouling tendencies
7. Types and phases of fluid
8. Maintenance, inspection, cleaning ,extension and repair possibilities
9. Overall economy
10. Fabrication techniques
1. Material of construction
For reliable and continuous use,
• the material of construction of heat exchangers should have well defined corrosion
rate in service environment.
• the material should exhibit strength to with stand with operating and temperature
and pressure
Prepared by:
Solomon H
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2. Operating temperature and pressure conditions
Pressure
– The design pressure is important to determine the thickness of pressure retaining
components. The higher the pressure, the greater will be the required thickness of
pressure retaining equipment.
Temperature
– Design temperature: This parameter is important as it indicate whether a material at
design temperature can withstand the operating pressure and various load imposed on
component.
Shell and tube heat exchanger units can be designed for almost all condition of temperature and
pressure. In extreme cases, high pressure may impose a limitation by fabrication problems
associate with material thickness.
Compact Heat exchanger: Compact Heat exchanger are constructed from thinner material by
mechanical bonding like welding. Therefore they are limited in operating pressure and
temperature
Gasketed plate heat exchanger and spiral exchanger: these exchanger are limited in pressure
and temperature. Wherein the limitation are imposed by the capability of gaskets
Prepared by:
Thermal Unit Operations for chemical Solomon H
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3. Flow rate
 Flow rate determine the flow area: the higher the flow rate the higher will be cross flow area
4. Flow arrangement
• The choice of typical flow arrangement (co-current or countercurrent) is dependent
of required exchanger effectiveness, exchanger construction types.

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Solomon H
5. Performance Parameter
Thermal effectiveness
Heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the actual amount of heat transferred to the
maximum possible amount of heat that could be transferred with an infinite area .
Pressure drop
important parameter in heat exchanger design.
The heat exchanger should be design in such a way that unproductive pressure drop
should be avoided to maximum extent in area like inlet and outlet bends ,nozzles and
manifolds.
6. Fouling Tendencies
defined as formation on heat exchanger surface of undesirable deposit that decrease
the heat transfer and increase the resistance to fluid flow, resulting in high pressure
drop.
The growth of those deposit decrease the performance of exchanger with time.

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Solomon H
7. Type and Phases of fluid
The phase of fluid within the unit is an important consideration in selection of heat
exchanger type.
Various combination of fluid dealt in exchanger are Liquid-Liquid, Liquid-Gas and Gas-Gas
8. Maintenance, inspection, cleaning, extension and

repair possibilities
The suitability of various heat exchanger depend upon its maintenance

,cleaning and repairing .
Repairing and maintenance of shell and tube exchanger is relatively easy
but repairing of expansion joint is somehow difficult.
Repairing and maintenance of compact heat exchanger of tube/plate fin
type heat exchanger is very difficult except by plugging of tube.

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Solomon H
9. Overall Economy
• There are two major cost to consider in designing of heat exchanger,
– the manufacturing cost and
– operating cost, including maintenance cost
• In general the less heat transfer area the less is the complexity of design, the lower in
manufacturing cost.
• The operating cost is pumping cost due to pumping device such as pumps, fans and
blowers.
• The maintenance cost include cost of spares that require frequent renewal due to
fouling and corrosion
10. Fabrication technique
• Fabrication technique is also determining factor for heat exchanger
design.
• For example shell and tube exchanger mostly fabricated by welding,
plate fin heat exchanger and automobile aluminum radiator by brazing.
• Most of circular tube fin exchanger fabricate by mechanical assembling.
Prepared by:
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Study Reference Materials
Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design.

Ramesh K. Shah and Dušan P. Sekulic,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Heat Exchanger Design Handbook.
Kuppan Thulukkanam, CRC Press.
Prepared by:
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Chapter-IV
Heat exchangers design calculations and methodology
 Heat Exchangers:
• UA-LMTD Design Method
• e -NTU Design Method
• An Example
Thermal Unit Operations for

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 Heat Exchangers
device for transferring
heat from one fluid to
another.
There are three main
categories: Recuperative, in
which the two fluids are at
all times separated by a
solid wall; Regenerative, in
which each fluid transfers
heat to or from a matrix of
material; Evaporative (direct
contact), in which the
enthalpy of vaporization of
one of the fluids is used to
provide a cooling effect.

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Heat Exchanger (HX) Design Methods
HX designers usually use two well-known methods for calculating the heat
transfer rate between fluid streams—the UA-LMTD and the effectiveness-NTU
(number of heat transfer units) methods.
Both methods can be equally employed for designing HXs. However, the -NTU
method is preferred for rating problems where at least one exit temperature is
unknown. If all inlet and outlet temperatures are known, the UA-LMTD method
does not require an iterative procedure and is the preferred method.
LMTD (Log Mean Temperature Difference)

The most commonly used type of heat exchanger is the recuperative heat
exchanger. In this type the two fluids can flow in counter-flow, in parallel-
flow, or in a combination of these, and cross-flow.
The true mean temperature difference is the Logarithmic mean
Temperature difference (LMTD), is defined as
t1  t 2
LMTD 
t1
ln
t 2
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Log Mean Temperature evaluation
T2  T1 m h .C ph . T3  T6  m c .C pc . T7  T10 
TLn  U 
 T 
ln 2 
A.TLn A.TLn
 T1 
COUNTER CURRENT FLOW
1 CON CURRENT FLOW 2 1 2
T3 T4 T6
T6
∆ T1 T1
∆ T2
Wall
T7 T2
T8
T9
∆A T10
A
A
T10
T1 T4 T2
T5 T10
T2
T3 T6 T1 T4 T5
T3 T6
T8 T9
T7
P ara llel Flow
T9
T1  T  T  T3  T7
T8
in in T7
h c Counter - Cur rent Flow
T1  T  Tcout  T3  T7
h
in
 T 2  T
08/20/2021 h
out
 Tc
out
 T6  T10 Thermal Unit Operations for
57
T  T out
chemical Engineers
2 h T c
in
 T6  T10
q  hh Ai Tlm 1 2
T3 T4 T6
(T  T )  (T6  T2 ) T6
Tlm  3 1 T1
(T  T ) Wall
ln 3 1
(T6  T2 ) T2
T7 T8
T9
T10
q  hc Ao Tlm
(T1  T7 )  (T2  T10 )
Tlm 
(T1  T7 )
ln
(T2  T10 )

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LMTD Method
- The Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) Method -
• A form of Newton’s Law of Cooling may be applied to heat exchangers by
using a log-mean value of the temperature difference between the two fluids:
q  U A  T1m
 T1   T2
 T1m 
1n   T1 /  T2 
Evaluation of  T1 and  T2depends on the heat exchanger type.
• Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger:
T1 Th,1 Tc,1

Th,i Tc,o
 T2  Th ,2  Tc ,2
 Th , o  Tc ,i
LMTD Method (cont.)
• Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger:
 T1  Th ,1  Tc ,1
 Th ,i  Tc ,i
 T2  Th ,2  Tc ,2
 Th , o  Tc , o
 Note that Tc,o can not exceed Th,o for a PF HX, but can do so for a CF HX.
 For equivalent values of UA and inlet temperatures,
 T1m,CF   T1m, PF
• Shell-and-Tube and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers:

 T1m  F  T1m,CF
F  Figures 11.10 - 11.13
Heat Transfer Rate of a Heat Exchanger
The heat transferred for any recuperative heat exchanger

can be calculated as(refer to the diagram shown on the
previous slide):
Q  m H c H  t H 1  t H 2   m C cC  t C 1  t C 2   UA LMTD 
where m H and m C are the mass flow rates of the hot and cold
fluids.
c H and cc are the specific heats of the hot and cold fluids.
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside area.
A is the total outside heat transfer area of the wall separating
the two fluids.

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Heat Exchanger UA-LMTD Design Method
LMTD
Q  UA LMTD  n
R
i 1
i
ln ro / ri 
n
1 1 1
UA
 i 1
Ri 
2ri hi L
 R f ,i 
2k p L
 R f ,o 
2ro ho L
Where U is the
Heat Transfer Duty Overall Heat Transfer
overall heat
Coefficient (W/m2.K)
transfer Water to condensing 440-830
coefficient (and R-12
is assumed to be Steam to water 960-1650
constant over the
Water to water 825-1510
whole surface
area of the heat Steam to gases 25-2750
exchanger).
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Heat Exchanger e-NTU Design Method
UA
NTU  Q max is based on C min because
C min
of the limitations imposed by the
Q actual Second Law of Thermodynamics
 
Q max
C c  t co  t ci  C h  t hi  t ho 
 
C min  t hi  t ci  C min  t hi  t ci 
Knowing the effectiveness
(from the chart on the right)
of a heat exchanger, one can
calculate the actual rate of
heat transfer from
Q  C  t  t 
actual min hi ci
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Problem: Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion
1.47: Design of a two-pass, shell-and-tube heat exchanger to supply

vapor for the turbine of an ocean thermal energy conversion
system based on a standard (Rankine) power cycle. The power
cycle is to generate 2 MWe at an efficiency of 3%. Ocean
water enters the tubes of the exchanger at 300K, and its desired
outlet temperature is 292K. The working fluid of the power
cycle is evaporated in the tubes of the exchanger at its
phase change temperature of 290K, and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is known.
FIND: (a) Evaporator area, (b) Water flow rate.
SCHEMATIC:
Problem: Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (cont)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible heat loss to surroundings, (2) Negligible kinetic and
potential energy changes, (3) Constant properties.
PROPERTIES: Table A-6, Water ( Tm = 296 K): cp = 4181 J/kgK.
ANALYSIS: (a) The efficiency is


W 2 MW
   0.03.
q q
Hence the required heat transfer rate is
2 MW
q  66.7 MW.
0.03
Also
 Tm,CF 
 300  290    292  290  C  5C
300  290
n
292  290
and, with P = 0 and R = , from Fig. 11.10 it follows that F = 1. Hence
q 6.67  107 W
A 
U F  Tm,CF 1200 W / m 2  K 1 5C
A  11,100 m 2 .
Problem: Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (cont)
b) The water flow rate through the evaporator is
q 6.67  107 W
h
m 

cp,h Th,i  Th,o 4181 J / kg  K  300  292 
 h  1994 kg / s.
m
COMMENTS: (1) The required heat exchanger size is enormous due to the small
temperature differences involved,
(2) The concept was considered during the energy crisis of the mid 1970s but has not since
been implemented.
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A hybrid central-receiver concept developed
at the NREL

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Molten-salt-to-air HX used to
preheat combustion air

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A HX Example: (continued)
Air flow rate: 0.503 kg/s per passage (250 lbm/s)
Air inlet temperature: 340oC (~650oF)
Air outlet temperature: 470oC (~880oF)
Salt flow rate: 0.483 kg/s per passage (240 lbm/s)
Salt inlet temperature: 565oC (~1050oF)
Salt outlet temperature: 475oC (~890oF)
Find the overall heat-transfer coefficient for this heat
exchanger. Ignore the fouling resistances.
Solution:
The overall heat transfer coefficient for this problem can be calculated from
1 1 t 1
   , where hs and ha are the convection heat - transfer
UA hs A k p A ha A
coefficient on the salt side and on the air side, respectively, k p is the
conductivity of the steel plate, and t is its thickness.
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Solution: (continued)
To obtain the overall heat - transfer coefficient (UA), we first identify all
thermal resistances to heat transfer between the salt stream and air stream.
These resistances are shown in Slide #12, and they consist of convection
1
heat - transfer resistance between the salt stream and the steel plate ( ),
hs A
t
conduction heat - transfer resistance through the steel plate ( ),
kpA
and the convection heat - transfer resistance between the steel plate and the
1
air stream ( ).
ha A
1. Calculation of air side heat transfer coefficient, ha :
Ta ,i  Ta ,o
340  470
The air properties are calculated at Ta    405o C ,
2 2
where we may obtain properties , , , Pr at this temperature from EES .
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To obtain ha , we first calculate the Reynolds and then choose an appropriate
expression for Nusselt number Nu. The Reynolds number is
m kg
 DH 0.503  0.006m
UDH A m DH s
Re      15 ,335,
  A kg .m
0.006m 2  3.28  10 5
s
where DH is the hydraulic diameter and can be calculated as
4 Aa 4 2  0.003
DH    0.006 m , and mass flow rate m  UA.
Pwet 2 2  0.003
For a fully developed turbulent flow through smooth, long tubes and ducts :
0.14
0.33   b 
NU DH  0.027 Re 0.8
Pr  
 s 
 0.02715 ,335  0.69 0.33 1 0.14  53.30.
0.8

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0.14
 
The term  b  represent the ratio of air viscosities at bulk and
 s 
surface temperatures, respectively, this term is close to unity and
therefore is ignored here. The Nusselt number in term of the heat - transfer
ha DH
coefficient is NuDH  or
k
W
NuDH k 53.30  0.0504
ha   m .K  448 W .
DH 0.006m m 2 .K
2. Calculation of salt side heat transfer coefficient, hs :
We follow a similar procedure for the salt side :
565  475
Ts   520o C .
2
The molten salt properties at this average temperature are
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kg.m W kg
μ  1.25  10 - 3 , k  0.543 , and   1756 3 .
s m .K m
To obtain hs , we first calculate the Reynolds and then choose an appropriat e
expression for Nusselt number Nu. The Reynolds number is
m kg
 DH 0.483  0.006 m
UD H A m D H s
Re      773,
  A kg .m
0.003m 2  1.25  10 3
s
4 Aa 4 0.003 
where D H    0.006 m , and mass flow rate m  UA .
Pwet 21  0.003 
The flow on the salt side is laminar, and the Nusselt number for a laminar flow
inside a duct with very large aspect ratio is Nu D H  8, as given by Shah and
London [1978]. With the correlatio n we can calculate
W
Nu D H k 8  0 . 543
hs   m .K  724 W .
DH 0.006 m m 2Unit
Thermal .K Operations for
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The thickness of the steel plate is t  0.002m , and its thermal conductivity
W
at about 450o C is k p  22 . Now, by substituti ng for all these in the
m .K
first equation we have we can obtain the overall heat transfer coefficien t
for this heat exchanger. Note that the heat - flow area A is the same for
convection and conduction terms; therefore, it can be canceled from both
sides of the equation.
Therefore
1 1 0.002 1
  
U 724 22 448
W
or U  270 2 .
m .K

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 Recuperative Heat Exchangers:
• Definition of Recuperative HX
• Types of Recuperative HX
• Design Factors
• Examples
A Recuperative Heat Exchanger (HX) is one in

which the two fluids are separated at all times
by a solid barrier.

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Waste-Heat
water-Tube
Boiler
Shell Boiler
using Waste
Gas

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Furnace
Gas Air
Pre-Heater

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Two-Pass Shell-and-Tube
Heat Exchanger

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Gas-to-Gas Heat Recovery with a
Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger

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Liquid-to-Liquid
Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger

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Basic Equations
The basic equations for any recuperative heat excahnger (HX)
are given as
Q  m H c H  t H 1  t H 2   m C cC  t C1  t C 2   UAo  LMTD  K
t1  t 2
where LMTD 
ln Δt1 / t 2 
and K is the correction factor depends on the type of flow.
Also
1 1 1
  Rw   Fi  Fo
UAo hi Ai ho Ao
where Fi and Fo are inside and outside surface fouling factors

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Heat Exchanger t1  t 2
LMTD 
Configurations ln Δt1 / t 2 
Counter - flow Counter - flow

 m c  C   m c  H  m c  C   m c  H Parallel - flow

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Extended Surfaces: Fins, fpi (fins per inch)
 
Q  h Abase   f A f T
where T is the temperature
difference between the base
surface and the fluid;
Abase is the area of unfinned
base surface;
A fin is the total surface area
of the fins, and
 f is the fin efficiency.

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Example 5.4 (Eastop & Croft) Fin Surface

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Example 5.4
A flat surface as shown in the previous slide has a base
temperature of 90oC when the air mean bulk
temperature is 20oC. Air is blown across the surface
and the mean heat transfer coefficient is 30 W/m2-K.
The fins are made of an aluminum alloy; the fin
thickness is 1.6 mm, the fin height is 19 mm, and the
fin pitch is 13.5 mm. Calculate the heat loss per m2 of
primary surface with and without the fins assuming
that the same mean heat transfer coefficient applies in
each case. Neglect the heat loss from the fin tips and
take a fin efficiency of 71%.

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Example 5.4 (continued)
The heat loss, Q loss , per unit area of primary surface with no fins
is given by Q loss  s a 
 hA T  T  30  1 1   90  20  2100W
Referring to the figure, the numbr of fins on a 1 m length can be
calculated as 1 / 0.0135  74.
The relevant areas are :
Abase  74   0.0135 - 0.0016  1  0.881 m 2
A fin  2  74  0.019  1  74  0.0016  1  2.930 m 2
Therefore, the heat loss from finned surface is given by
Q  30   0.881  0.71 2.930  70  6219W
loss , fin
Comparing this with the value for unfinned surface of
2100 W shows an increase of 200%.
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-NTU Method
(Effectiveness — Number of Thermal Units Method)
Heat exchanger effectiven ess,  , is defined as
Actual heat transfer

Maximum possible heat Transfer
Q C or Q H
 .
 m c  min  t H ,max  tC ,min 
It can be expressed as the function of ratio of the

thermal capacities of the two fluids, R and the number
of transfer units, NTU , where
Cmin UAo
R , NTU 
Cmax
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 m c  minThermal Unit Operations for 97
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-NTU (Effectiveness against NTU)
for shell-and-tube heat exchangers
1  e  NTU 1 R 

1  Re  NTU  1 R 
(with 2 shell passes and
4, 8, 12 tube passes)

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Characteristics of -NTU Chart
 For given mass flow rates and specific heats of two
fluids the value of  depends on the NTU and hence on
the product (UAo). Thus for a given value of U the NTU
is proportional to Ao. It can then be seen from the -NTU
chart that increasing Ao increases  and hence the saving
in fuel.
 The capital cost of the heat exchanger increases as the
area increases and -NTU chart shows that at high
values of  large increase in area produce only a small
increase in .
 The NTU and hence the effectiveness,  can be
increased for a fixed value of area by increasing the
value of the overall heatThermal
transfer coefficient, U.
Unit Operations for
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Increasing HX  with Fixed Ao (1)
1 1 1
  Rw   Fi  Fo
UAo hi Ai ho Ao
The NTU, and hence  can be increased for a fixed value of the
area by increasing the value of the overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, which can be increased by increasing the heat
transfer coefficient for one or both of the individual fluids.
For a typical turbulent heat transfer in a tube
Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 (recall Nu  hd i / k )
ud i  Au  d i m t d i 4m t
where Re 


A

 
 d i / 4 d i 
2

 
 h  0.023k  4 /   Pr 0.4 m t / d i  (constant)m t / d i
0.8 0.8 1.8 0.8 1.8
The heat transfer coefficient can be increased by reducing the

tube diameter, and/or increasing the mass flow rate per tube.
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Increasing HX  with Fixed Ao (2)
 Since m  nm t , for a constant total mass flow rate the
number of tubes per pass must be reduced
correspondingly if the mass flow rate per tube is
increased.
 Also, the heat transfer area is given by Ao  npd o L ,
where n is the number of tubes per pass, and p is the
number of tube passes. Therefore, to maintain the same
total heat transfer area for a reduced tube diameter in a
given type of heat exchanger, it is necessary to increase
the length of the tubes per pass, L, and/or the number of
tubes per pass (which will reduce the heat transfer rate.)
 The design process is therefore an iterative process in
order to arrive at the optimum arrangement of tube
diameter, tube length, and number of tubes.
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Overall HX Design Considerations
 Altering the inside diameter of a tube to increase the
heat transfer coefficient for flow through the tube will
alter the heat transfer on the shell side.
 A full economic analysis also requires consideration of
the pumping power for both fluids. Pressure losses in
fluid flow due to friction, turbulence, and fittings such as
valves, bends etc. are proportional to the square of the
flow velocity. The higher the fluid velocity and the more
turbulent the flow the higher is the heat transfer
coefficient but the greater the pumping power.
1 1 1
  Rw   Fi  Fo
UAo hi Ai ho Ao
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Example 5.5
(a) A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is used to recover energy
from engine oil and consists of two shell passes for water and
four tube passes for the engine oil as shown diagrammatically in
the following figure. The effectiveness can be calculated based
on Eastop Equation (3.33). For a flow of oil of 2.3 kg/s entering
at a temperature of 150oC, and a flow of water of 2.4 kg/s
entering at 40oC, use the data given to calculate:
(i) the total number of tubes required;
(ii) the length of the tubes;
(iii) the exit temperatures of the water and oil;
(iv) the fuel cost saving per year if water heating is currently
provided by a gas boiler of efficiency 0.8.
(b) What would be the effectiveness and fuel saving per year
with eight tube passes?
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Example 5.5 (continued)

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Chapter-V: Rating of Heat Exchangers
RATING OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

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HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN PROBLEMS
In a broad sense, the design of a new heat exchanger means the selection of exchanger
construction type, flow arrangement, tube and fin material, and the physical size of an
exchanger to meet the specified heat-transfer and pressure-drop requirements.
. Two most common heat exchanger design problems are the rating and sizing
For an existing exchanger, the performance evaluation problem is referred to as the

rating problem. The sizing problem is also referred to as the design problem.
5.1. Rating of HEs
Determination of heat-transfer and pressure-drop performance of either an existing

exchanger or an already sized exchanger is referred to as a rating problem.
Prepared by:
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Inputs to the rating problem
(3) overall
dimensions,
(5) surface
(4) material geometries and
surface
details characteristics,
(7) inletPrepared by:
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(6) fluid Thermal Unit Operations for chemical
Engineers
Solomon H
107
Cont’d
The designers' task is to predict the fluid outlet temperatures, total heat-transfer rate, and
pressure drop on each side.
cross flow and counter cross flow exchanger is used separately for rating analysis.
Customarily, the ɛ-NTU method is employed for compact heat exchangers.

Hence, the solution procedure is outlined here using the ɛ-NTU method.
The basic steps involved in the analysis of a rating problem are the determination of:
1.Surface geometrical parameters
2.Thermo physical fluid properties
3.Reynolds numbers
4.Surface characteristics,
5.Corrections to the temperature-dependent fluid properties
6.Heat-transfer coefficients
7.Fin effectiveness and overall surface effectiveness
8.Thermal resistance due to conduction wall
9.Overall heat-transfer coefficient
10.NTU, C*, and exchanger effectiveness e
11.Heat transfer rate, outlet
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Thermal and pressure drop on each side
Unit Operations for chemical
108
Engineers
Thermophysical Properties
• For heat transfer and pressure-drop analysis, the following
thermophysical properties of the fluids are needed: dynamic
viscosity μ, density, specific heat cp, surface tension, and
thermal conductivity k. For the conduction wall, thermal
conductivity is needed

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Rating of Shell and Tube heat Exchanger
The most commonly used heat exchanger .

It is the “workhorse” of industrial process heat transfer.
It has many applications in the power generation, petroleum refinery, chemical industries,
and process industries.
They are used as oil cooler, condenser, feedwater heater, etc. Other types of heat
exchangers are used when economical.
“Rating” implies that a specific heat exchanger is fairly completely described
geometrically (with the possible exception of the length) and the process specifications for
the two streams are given.
.
The Bell-Delaware method is a rating method.
The basic rating program of the Bell-Delaware method is used
Prepared by:
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CONSTRUCTION DETAILS FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
The major components of a shell and tube exchanger are tubes, baffles, shell, front
head, rear head, and nozzles. Expansion joint is an important component in the case
of fixed tubesheet exchanger for certain design conditions.
The selection criteria for a proper combination of thecomponents is dependent upon
the operating pressures, temperatures, thermal stresses, corrosion characteristics of
fluids, fouling, cleanability, and cost.
TUBES
 Tubes of circular cross section are exclusively used in exchangers.
 Since the desired heat transfer in the exchanger takes place across the tube surface,
the selection of tube geometrical variables is important from the performance point
of view .
Tubes should be able to withstand the following:
1. Operating temperature and pressure on both sides
2. Thermal stresses due to the differential thermal expansion between the shell and
the tube bundle
3. Corrosive nature of both the shellside and the tubeside fluids
o There are two types of tubes: straight tubes and U-tubes.

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…
TUBE ARRANGEMENT
Tube Pitch
• The selection of tube pitch is a compromise between a close pitch for increased shellside
heat transfer and surface compactness, and a larger pitch for decreased shellside pressure
drop and fouling, and ease in cleaning.
Tube Layout
• are designed so as to include as many tubes as possible within the shell to achieve maximum
heat transfer area.
• Sometimes a layout is selected that also permits access to the tubes for cleaning as required
by process conditions

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BAFFLES
 Baffles must generally be employed on the shell side to support the tubes,
to maintain the tube spacing, and to direct the shell side fluid across or
along the tube bundle in a specified manner
TUBESHEET AND ITS CONNECTION WITH SHELL AND CHANNEL

 A tube sheet is an important component of a heat exchanger.
 It is the principal barrier between the shell side and tube side fluids. Proper
design of a tube sheet is important for safety and reliability of the heat
exchanger.
TUBE BUNDLE
 A tube bundle is an assembly of tubes, baffles, tubesheets, spacers and tie-
rods, and longitudinal baffles, if any.

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.
SHELLS
 Heat exchanger shells are manufactured in a large
range of standard sizes, materials, and thickness.
 Smaller sizes are usually fabricated from standard size
pipes.
 Larger sizes are fabricated from plate by rolling. The
cost of the shell is much more than the cost of the
tubes;
 hence, a designer tries to accommodate the required
heat transfer surface in one shell
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5.2.Sizing
In a sizing problem, we determine the physical size (length, width, height, and surface area on
each side) of an exchanger.
Inputs to the sizing problem are the fluid inlet and outlet temperatures, flow rates, fouling
factors, and the pressure drop on each side.
The designer’s task is to select construction type, flow arrangement, materials, and surface
geometry on each side
With the selection of construction types and surface geometries on each side, the problem then
reduces to the determination of the core dimensions for the specified heat-transfer and pressure-
drop performance.
• .
However, one can reduce the sizing problem to the rating problem by tentatively specifying
the dimensions, then predict the performance, If the computed results do not agree with the
specified values, a new size is assumed and the calculations are repeated
Prepared by:
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Cont’d
1.Thermal effectiveness
2.Fluid flow rate
3.Secondary surface area per unit volume
4.Heat-transfer surface performance parameters
5.Heat-transfer augmentation devices, if any
6.Conductance ratio of the process fluids
Sensitivity Analysis
• In a sizing problem, sometimes one is interested in
determining the sensitivity of certain variables individually.
•

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Cont’d
• For example, how does the heat transfer vary when changing the fin
density in a compact heat exchanger with secondary surface? In such
a case, one inputs a series of values of fin densities at one time, runs
the performance (rating) calculations, obtains a series of results, and
analyzes them.
• Sizing of a Compact Heat Exchanger
• Sizing of a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
• Shell and tube heat exchanger design or sizing is based upon
1. design conditions, that is, fluid flow rates, terminal temperatures,
thermo physical fluid properties, and allowable pressure drop;
2. assumptions, heat-transfer surface area, overall heat-transfer
coefficient, or size, length, or number of tubes; and

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Cont’d
3. Pressure drop across the heat exchanger .
 The design conditions are fixed by overall plant design and
determine the expected performance of the exchanger.
 Trial-and-error calculations of the film coefficients area
used to check the assumptions, which are also checked by
an overall heat balance.
 Finally, the pressure drop is calculated and compared with
the allowable values.
 If the calculated pressure drop is too high, a new set of
assumptions is made and rechecked till the interest value.

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Pressure drop across the Heat Exchanger

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Heat Exchanger Optimization
• The solution to the sizing problem in general is not adequate for the
design of a new exchanger, since other constraints in addition to
pressure drop are imposed on the design, and the objective of the
design is to minimize the weight, volume, and heat-transfer surface,
and minimum pumping power, pressure drop, or other considerations
in addition to meeting the required heat transfer.
• This is achieved by heat exchanger optimization by reviewed various
methods used in the heat exchanger optimization by conducting
numerical nonlinear programming techniques.
• Now let us discuss the basic steps involved in the solution of the two
design problems i.e. rating and sizing problems.

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Chapter-6: Fouling of Heat Exchangers
6.1. Introduction
 The accumulation of unwanted deposits on the surfaces of heat
exchangers is usually referred to as fouling.
 The presence of these deposits represents a resistance to the transfer
of heat and therefore reduces the efficiency of the particular heat
exchanger. The foulant may be crystalline, biological material, the products
of chemical reactions including corrosion, or particulate matter.
 The character of the deposit depends on the fluid (liquid or gas) passing
through the heat exchanger.
 It may be the bulk fluid itself that causes the problem of deposit formation,
e.g. the decomposition of an organic liquid under the temperature
conditions within the heat exchanger. Far more often than not, the fouling
problem is produced by some form of contaminant within the fluid,
often at very low concentration, e.g. solid particles or micro-organisms.

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Cont’d
 Fouling can occur as a result of the fluids being handled and their constituents
in combination with the operating conditions such as temperature and
velocity.
 Almost any solid or semi solid material can become a heat exchanger foulant,
but some materials that are commonly encountered in industrial operations as
foulant include:
 Inorganic materials
• Airborne dusts and grit
• Waterborne mud and silts
• Calcium and magnesium salts
• Iron oxide
 Organic materials
• Biological substances, e.g. bacteria, fungi and algae
• Oils, waxes and greases
• Heavy organic deposits, e.g. polymers, tars Carbon
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Cont’d
 In general the ability to transfer heat efficiently remains a
central feature of many industrial processes.
 As a consequence much attention has been paid to
improving the understanding of heat transfer mechanisms
and the development of suitable correlations and techniques
that may be applied to the design of heat exchangers.
 On the other hand relatively little consideration has been
given to the problem of surface fouling in heat exchangers.
• The principal purpose of this section is to provide some
insight into the problem of fouling from a scientific and
technological standpoint.

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Cont’d

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6.2. Basic Principles
• The accumulation of deposits on the surfaces of a heat exchanger
increases the overall resistance to heat flow. Fig. 6.1 illustrates how
the temperature distribution is affected by the presence of the
individual fouling layers. Figure 6.1. Temperature distribution across
fouled heat exchanger surfaces

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Cont’d
• T1 and T6 represent the temperatures of the bulk hot and cold
fluids respectively.
• Under turbulent flow conditions these temperatures extend almost
to the boundary layer in the respective fluids since there is good
mixing and the heat is carded physically rather than by conduction
as in solids or slow moving fluids.
• The boundary layers (the regions between the deposit and the
fluid), because of their near stagnant conditions offer a resistance
to heat flow. In general the thermal conductivity of foulant is low
unlike that of metals which are relatively high.
• For these reasons, in order to drive the heat through the deposits
relatively large temperature differences are required, whereas the
temperature difference across the metal wall is comparatively low.
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Cont’d
• Thermal conductivities of some common foulant-like
materials are given in Table 6.1 that also includes data for
common construction materials. The effects of even thin
layers of foulant may be readily appreciated.

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Cont’d
• The
resistance to heat flow across a solid surface is given as
where x is the solid thickness and λ is the thermal
conductivity of the particular solid. Referring to the diagram
(Fig. 6.1) the resistances of the solids to heat flow are:


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Cont’d
• The above equation can be rewritten as

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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6.2. Fouling Factor
• The performance of heat exchangers usually deteriorates
with time as a result of accumulation of deposits on heat
transfer surfaces.
• The layer of deposits represents additional resistance to
heat transfer and causes the rate of heat transfer in a heat
exchanger to decrease.
• The net effect of these accumulations on heat transfer is
represented by a fouling factor Rf , which is a measure of
the thermal resistance introduced by fouling.
Thermal Unit Operations for chemical 139

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Cont’d
• The most common type of fouling is the precipitation of
solid deposits in a fluid on the heat transfer surfaces.
• Another form of fouling, which is common in the chemical
process industry, is corrosion and other chemical fouling.
• Heat exchangers may also be fouled by the growth of algae
in warm fluids (biological fouling).
• The fouling factor depends on the operating temperature
and the velocity of the fluids, as well as the length of
service.
• Fouling increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing velocity.
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Cont’d
• Generally, the overall heat transfer coefficient of a heat
exchanger under some operating conditions, especially in
the process industry, often cannot be predicted from thermal
analysis alone.
• During operation with most liquids and some gases, a
deposit gradually builds up on the heat transfer surface.
• The deposit may be rust, boiler scale, silt, coke, or any
number of things.
• Its effect, which is referred to as fouling, is to increase the
thermal resistance.

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Cont’d
 The manufacturer cannot usually predict the nature of the
dirt deposit or the rate of fouling.
 Therefore, only the performance of clean exchangers can be
guaranteed.
 The thermal resistance of the deposit can generally be
obtained only from actual tests or from experience.
•If performance tests are made on a clean exchanger and
repeated later after the unit has been in service for some time,
the thermal resistance of the deposit (or fouling factor) Rd can
be determined from the relation

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Chapter-7: Heat Transfer in Selected Chemical Apparatus
• The transfer of heat to and from process fluids is an essential part of
most chemical processes.
• The word “exchanger” really applies to all types of equipment in
which heat is exchanged but is often used specifically to denote
equipment in which heat is exchanged between two or more process
streams.
• If the process stream is vaporised the exchanger is called a vaporizer.
• A reboiler is associated with a distillation column with condenser.
• An evaporator is used to concentrate a solution.
• Heated by combustion gases, such as boilers.
• The most commonly used type of heat-transfer equipments are
discussed in this chapter

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7.1. Condensers
• Condensers are basically heat exchangers in which the refrigerant

undergoes a phase change.
• Condensers selection is very important for satisfactory
performance of any refrigeration system.
• As already mentioned, condenser is an important component of
any refrigeration system.
• In a typical refrigerant condenser, the refrigerant enters the
condenser in a superheated state.
• It is first de-superheated and then condensed by rejecting heat to
an external medium.
• The refrigerant may leave the condenser as a saturated or a sub-
cooled liquid, depending upon the temperature of the external
medium and design of the condenser.
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Condensation Processes
 There are primarily three types of condensation processes:
1.Surface Condensation.
occurs when vapor is in contact with a cool surface.
This process is common in industrial applications and is
discussed below.
2.Homogeneous Condensation.
occurs when the vapor condenses out as droplets in the gas phase.
3.Direct Contact Condensation.
occurs when vapor is in contact with a cold liquid.

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Cont’d
 In evaporators that are working under reduced pressure, a
condenser, to remove the bulk of the volume of the vapours by
condensing them to a liquid, often precedes the vacuum pump.
 Condensers for the vapour may be either surface or jet
condensers.
 Surface condensers provide sufficient heat transfer surface,
pipes for example, through which the condensing vapour
transfers latent heat of vaporization to cooling water
circulating through the pipes.
 In a jet condenser, the vapours are mixed with a stream of
condenser water sufficient in quantity to transfer latent heat
from the vapours.

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Calculations of Heat transfer in Condensers
Example 7.1. Water required in a jet condenser for an evaporator.
How much water would be required in a jet condenser to condense the
vapours from an evaporator evaporating 5000 kg h-1 of water under a
pressure of 15 cm of mercury? The condensing water is available at
18°C and the highest allowable temperature for water discharged from
the condenser is 35°C.

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Cont’d
Example 7.2. Heat exchange area for a surface condenser.
 What heat exchange area would be required for a surface condenser working under
the same conditions as the jet condenser in Example 7.1. Above, assuming a U value
of 2270 J m-2 s-1 °C-1, and disregarding any sub-cooling of the liquid.
Solution
• The temperature differences are small so that the arithmetic mean temperature can be
used for the heat exchanger (condenser).
Mean temperature difference = (60 - 18)/2 + (60 - 35)/2
= 33.5°C.
• The data are available from the previous Example, and remembering to put time in
hours.
Quantity of heat required by condensate = UA DT
5000 x 2.46 x 106 = 2270 x A x 33.5 x 3600
and so A = 45 m2
Heat transfer area required = 45 m2
This would be a large surface condenser so that a jet condenser is often preferred.

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7.2. Evaporators
 An evaporator is essentially a heat exchanger in which a
liquid is boiled to give a vapour, so that it is also,
simultaneously, a low pressure steam generator.
 It may be possible to make use of this, to treat an
evaporator as a low pressure boiler, and to make use of
the steam thus produced for further heating in another
following evaporator called another effect.
 Consider two evaporators connected so that the vapour
line from one is connected to the steam chest of the other
as making up a two effect evaporator.

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Heat Transfer in Evaporators
• Heat transfer in evaporators is governed by the equations for heat
transfer to boiling liquids and by the convection and conduction
equations.
• The heat must be provided from a source at a suitable temperature and
this is condensing steam in most cases.
• The steam comes either directly from a boiler or from a previous
stage of evaporation in another evaporator.
• In some cases the temperatures of condensing steam may be too high
for the product and hot water may be used.
• Low-pressure steam can also be used but the large volumes create
design problems.

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Types of evaporators used today
1.Natural/forced circulation evaporator
are based on the natural circulation of the product caused by the density differences
that arise from heating.
2. Falling film evaporator
This type of evaporator is generally made of 4–8 m tubes enclosed by steam jackets.
3. Rising film (Long Tube Vertical) evaporator
In this type of evaporator, boiling takes place inside the tubes, due to heating made
(usually by steam) outside the same. Submergence is therefore not desired; the creation
of water vapor bubbles inside the tube creates an accessional flow enhancing the
heat transfer coefficient.
4. Climbing and falling-film plate evaporator
Climbing and falling-film plate evaporators have a relatively large surface area. The
plates are usually corrugated and are supported by frame.
During evaporation, steam flows through the channels formed by the free spaces
between the plates.

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Cont’d
4. 5. Multiple-effect evaporators

Unlike single-stage evaporators, these evaporators can be composed of up to seven
evaporator stages (effects). The energy consumption for single-effect evaporators is very
high and is most of the cost for an evaporation system. Putting together evaporators saves
heat and thus requires less energy.
6. Agitated thin film evaporators

Agitated thin-film evaporation has been very successful with difficult-to-handle products.
Simply stated, the method quickly separates the volatile from the less volatile components
using indirect heat transfer and mechanical agitation of the flowing product film under
controlled conditions.

Resistance to heat transfer lies on the liquid side.

By mechanical agitation of liquid we can reduce the resistance

It is a modified falling film evaporator with a single jacked tube containing an internal
agitator

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Long vertical tube evaporator
1. Rising film 2. Falling film
D: 25 to 50 mm
L: 3 to 10 m
D: 50 to 250 mm
L: 3 to 10 m
Applications:
Applications:
Used for concentrating highly heat-
Used for handling of foaming,
sensitive materials such as orange juice,
frothy liquors.
food materials etc. which require short
residence times.
Forced circulation evaporators
 In natural circulation evaporators the liquid enters with velocity 0.3
to 1 m/s and generally the heat transfer coefficients are very low,
particularly with viscous liquids.
 By increasing the velocity of the liquid flow (generally 2 to 6 m/s)

through the tubes heat transfer coefficients increases enormously
and it also prevents the scale formation on heating surfaces.
These are two types. They are,

(i) Forced circulation evaporator with horizontal heating element
(ii) Forced circulation evaporator with vertical heating element
With horizontal heating element
With vertical heating element

Cont’d
EXAMPLE 7.3. Concentration of tomato juice in a climbing film evaporator
• Tomato juice is to be concentrated from 12% solids to 28% solids in a climbing
film evaporator, 3 m high and 4 cm diameter. The maximum allowable
temperature for tomato juice is 57°C. The juice is fed to the evaporator at 57°C
and at this temperature the latent heat of vaporization is 2366 kJ kg-1. Steam is
used in the jacket of the evaporator at a pressure of 170 kPa (abs). If the overall
heat-transfer coefficient is 6000 J m-2 s-1 °C-1, estimate the quantity of tomato
juice feed per hour. Take heating surface as 3 m long x 0.04 m diameter.

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Cont’d

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Methods of operation of evaporators
• Frequently in industry a raw material or a potential foodstuff
contains more water than is required in the final product.
• When the foodstuff is a liquid, the easiest method of removing the
water, in general, is to apply heat to evaporate it.
• Evaporation is thus a process that is often used by the food
technologist.
 The basic factors that affect the rate of evaporation are the:
• rate at which heat can be transferred to the liquid,
• quantity of heat required to evaporate each kg of water,
• maximum allowable temperature of the liquid,
• pressure at which the evaporation takes place,
• changes that may occur in the foodstuff during the course of the
evaporation process.
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Cont’d
• Considered as a piece of process plant, the evaporator has two
principal functions, to exchange heat and to separate the vapour
that is formed from the liquid.
 Important practical considerations in evaporators are the:
• maximum allowable temperature, which may be substantially
below 100°C.
• promotion of circulation of the liquid across the heat transfer
surfaces, to attain reasonably high heat transfer coefficients and
to prevent any local overheating,
• viscosity of the fluid which will often increase substantially as
the concentration of the dissolved materials increases,
• tendency to foam which makes separation of liquid and vapour
difficult.
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The single effect evaporator
• The typical evaporator is made up of three functional sections:
 the heat exchanger,
 the evaporating section, where the liquid boils and evaporates,
 And the separator in which the vapour leaves the liquid and passes
off to the condenser or to other equipment.
 In many evaporators, all three sections are contained in a single
vertical cylinder.
• In the center of the cylinder there is a steam heating section, with
pipes passing through it in which the evaporating liquors rise. At the
top of the cylinder, there are baffles, which allow the vapours to
escape but check liquid droplets that may accompany the vapours
from the liquid surface. A diagram of this type of evaporator, which
may be called the conventional evaporator, is given in Fig. 7.1.

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Cont’d
In the heat exchanger section, called a calandria in this
type of evaporator, steam condenses in the outer jacket
and the liquid being evaporated boils on the inside of the
tubes and in the space above the upper tube plate. The
resistance to heat flow is imposed by the steam and
liquid film coefficients and by the material of the tube
walls. The circulation of the liquid greatly affects
evaporation rates, but circulation rates and patterns are
very difficult to predict in any detail. Values of overall
heat transfer coefficients that have been reported for
evaporators are of the order of 1800-5000 J m-2 s-1 °C-
1 for the evaporation of distilled water in a vertical-tube
evaporator with heat supplied by condensing steam.
However, with dissolved solids in increasing quantities
as evaporation proceeds leading to increased viscosity
and poorer circulation, heat transfer coefficients in
practice may be much lower than this.
Figure 7.1 Single effect evaporator

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Cont’d
• Simplified diagram of single effect evaporator

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Energy balances for Single-effect Evaporator
mV, λV
Vapor
Overall material balance

mf, xf, CPf, Tf
Feed mf = m P + m v
P, T
Solute balance
Saturated m S, T S, λS
Steam m f xf = m P xP
mC Energy balance
Condensate mS λS = mf CPf (T – Tf) + mV λV
Enthalpy balance
mS λS = (mP HP + mV HV) – mf Hf
m P , xP
Thick
product
Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d
• As evaporation proceeds, the remaining liquors become more
concentrated and because of this the boiling temperatures rise.
• The rise in the temperature of boiling reduces the available
temperature drop, assuming no change in the heat source.
• And so the total rate of heat transfer will drop accordingly. Also, with
increasing solute concentration, the viscosity of the liquid will
increase, often quite substantially, and this affects circulation and the
heat transfer coefficients leading again to lower rates of boiling.
• Yet another complication is that measured, overall, heat transfer
coefficients have been found to vary with the actual temperature drop,
so that the design of an evaporator on theoretical grounds is inevitably
subject to wide margins of uncertainty.

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Cont’d
• Calculations on evaporators can be carried out combining mass and energy
balances with the principles of heat transfer.
• EXAMPLE 7.4. Single effect evaporator: steam usage and heat transfer surface
A single effect evaporator is required to concentrate a solution from 10% solids to
30% solids at the rate of 250 kg of feed per hour. If the pressure in the evaporator is
77 kPa absolute, and if steam is available at 200 kPa gauge, calculate the quantity of
steam required per hour and the area of heat transfer surface if the overall heat
transfer coefficient is 1700 J m-2 s-1 °C-1. Assume that the temperature of the feed is
18°C and that the boiling point of the solution under the pressure of 77 kPa absolute
is 91°C. Assume, also, that the specific heat of the solution is the same as for water,
that is 4.186 x 103 J kg-1°C-1, and the latent heat of vaporization of the solution is the
same as that for water under the same conditions.
• From steam tables, the condensing temperature of steam at 200 kPa (gauge)[300 kPa
absolute] is 134°C and latent heat 2164 kJ kg -1; the condensing temperature at 77 kPa
(abs.) is 91°C and latent heat is 2281 kJ kg -1.
 Mass balance (kg h-1)

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Multiple-effect evaporators
• An evaporator is essentially a heat exchanger in which a

liquid is boiled to give a vapour, so that it is also,
simultaneously, a low pressure steam generator.
• It may be possible to make use of this, to treat an
evaporator as a low pressure boiler, and to make use of the
steam thus produced for further heating in another following
evaporator called another effect.
• Consider two evaporators connected so that the vapour line
from one is connected to the steam chest of the other as
shown in Fig. 7.1, making up a two effect evaporator.

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Cont’d
Figure 7.1 Double effect evaporator –

forward feed

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Cont’d

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Feeding of Multiple Effect Evaporators
• In a two effect evaporator, the temperature in the steam chest is
higher in the first than in the second effect.
• In order that the steam provided by the evaporation in the first effect
will boil off liquid in the second effect, the boiling temperature in the
second effect must be lower and so that effect must be under lower
pressure.
• Consequently, the pressure in the second effect must be reduced
below that in the first.
• In some cases, the first effect may be at a pressure above
atmospheric; or the first effect may be at atmospheric pressure and
the second and subsequent effects have therefore to be under
increasingly lower pressures.

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Cont’d
• Often many of the later effects are under vacuum. Under these
conditions, the liquid feed progress is simplest if it passes from effect
one to effect two, to effect three, and so on, as in these circumstances
the feed will flow without pumping. This is called forward feed.
• It means that the most concentrated liquids will occur in the last
effect.
• Alternatively, feed may pass in the reverse direction, starting in the
last effect and proceeding to the first, but in this case the liquid has to
be pumped from one effect to the next against the pressure drops.
• This is called backward feed and because the concentrated viscous
liquids can be handled at the highest temperatures in the first effects it
usually offers larger evaporation capacity than forward feed systems,
but it may be disadvantageous from the viewpoint of product quality.

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Advantages of Multiple Effect Evaporators

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Cont’d

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• EXAMPLE 7.5. Triple effect evaporators: steam usage
and heat transfer surface.
• Estimate the requirements of steam and heat transfer surface, and the
evaporating temperatures in each effect, for a triple effect evaporator
evaporating 500 kg h-1 of a 10% solution up to a 30% solution. Steam
is available at 200 kPa gauge and the pressure in the evaporation
space in the final effect is 60 kPa absolute. Assume that the overall
heat transfer coefficients are 2270, 2000 and 1420 J m-2 s-1 °C-1 in the
first, second and third effects respectively. Neglect sensible heat
effects and assume no boiling-point elevation, and assume equal heat
transfer in each effect.

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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Cont’d

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7.3. boilers

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Calculations of Heat transfer in boilers

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7.3. Re-Boiler
• Re- boilers are heat exchangers typically used to provide heat to the
bottom of industrial distillation columns.
• They boil the liquid from the bottom of a distillation column to
generate vapors which are returned to the column to drive the
distillation separation.
• The heat supplied to the column by the reboiler at the bottom of
the column is removed by the condenser at the top of the column.
• Proper reboiler operation is vital to effective distillation.
• In a typical classical distillation column, all the vapor driving the
separation comes from the reboiler.
• The reboiler receives a liquid stream from the column bottom and
may partially or completely vaporize that stream Steam usually
provides the heat required for the vaporization.
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Cont’d
• The most critical element of reboiler design is the selection
of the proper type of reboiler for a specific service.
• Most reboiler are of the shell and tube heat exchanger type
and normally steam is used as the heat source in such
reboiler.
• However, other heat transfer fluids like hot oil or
Dowtherm (TM) may be used.
• Fuel-fired furnaces may also be used as reboiler in some
cases.

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Cont’d
1.Kettle reboiler are very simple and reliable.
• They may require pumping of the column bottoms liquid into the
kettle, or there may be sufficient liquid head to deliver the liquid
into the reboiler.
• In this reboiler type, steam flows through the tube bundle and exits
as condensate.
• The liquid from the bottom of the tower, commonly called the
bottoms, flows through the shell side.
• There is a retaining wall or overflow weir separating the tube
bundle from the reboiler section where the residual reboiled liquid
(called the bottoms product) is withdrawn, so that the tube bundle
is kept covered with liquid and reduce the amount of tow-boiling
compounds in the bottoms product.
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1.Kettle reboiler
Typical steam-heated kettle

reboiler for distillation towers

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2. Thermosyphon reboilers
• Thermosyphon reboilers do not require pumping of the
column bottoms liquid into the reboiler.
• Natural circulation is obtained by using the density
difference between the reboiler inlet column bottoms liquid
and the reboiler outlet liquid-vapor mixture to provide
sufficient liquid head to deliver the tower bottoms into the
reboiler.
• Thermosyphon reboilers (also known as calandrias) are
more complex than kettle reboilers and require more
attention from the plant operators.
• There are many types of thermosyphon reboilers including
vertical, horizontal, once-through or recirculating.
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2.Thermosyphon reboilers
2: Typical horizontal thermosyphon reboiler

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3.Fired reboiler
• Fired heaters also known as furnaces, maybe used as a
distillation column reboiler.
• A pump is required to circulate the column bottoms through
the heat transfer tubes in the furnace's convection and
radiant sections. The heat source for the fired heater reboiler
may be either fuel gas or fuel oil.

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3.A forced recirculating fired heater reboiler
3.A forced recirculating fired heater reboiler

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4.Forced circulation reboilers
• A forced circulation reboiler uses a pump to circulate the
column bottoms liquid through the reboilers.
• This is useful if the reboiler must be located far from the
column, or if the bottoms product is extremely viscous.
• Some fluids are temperature sensitive such as those subject
to polymerization by contact with high temperature heat
transfer tube walls.
• High liquid recirculation rates are used to reduce tube wall
temperatures, thereby reducing polymerization on the tube
and associated fouling.

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Cont’d
4: Typical steam-heated forced circulation

reboiler for distillation towers

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Calculations of Heat transfer in re-boilers

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7.4. Agitated Vessels
• Unless only small rates of heat transfer are required, as

when maintaining the temperature of liquids in storage
vessels, some form of agitation will be needed.
• Various types of agitator used for mixing and blending used
to promote heat transfer in vessels.
• The correlations used to estimate the heat transfer
coefficient to the vessel wall, or to the surface of coils, have
the same form as those used for forced convection in
conduits.
• The fluid velocity is replaced by a function of the agitator
diameter and rotational speed, D x N, and the characteristic
dimension is the agitator diameter.
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Cont’d

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Calculations of Heat transfer in agitated Vessels

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Chapter-8: Extended Surfaces
8.0. Introduction

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8.1. Intensification of heat transfer

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Thermal Unit Operation Lecture Note

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Chapter-I

Introduction to Thermal Unit operations

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Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

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Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Classification by Transfer process

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

1. Indirect contact type

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Tubular Exchanger Plate and Frame Exchanger

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Continuous-passage matrices for a rotary regenerator: (a)

Fixed Bed Regenerator

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

– Regenerative heating was one of the most important

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

2. Direct-Contact Heat Exchanger

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Single Pass flow arrangement

b) Parallel flow exchanger( cocurrent parallel stream)

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

c) Split flow Exchanger

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

• Plate type Rotary

– Plate and frame Fixed-matrix

– Spiral Rotating hoods

Shell and Tube

Plate and Frame HEs

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Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

8. Maintenance, inspection, cleaning, extension and

The suitability of various heat exchanger depend upon its maintenance

Thermal Unit Operations for chemical

Fundamentals of Heat Exchanger Design.

Thermal Unit Operations for

Thermal Unit Operations for

LMTD (Log Mean Temperature Difference)

h c Counter - Cur rent Flow