Introduction to Psychology

States of Consciousness
Consciousness and
Biological Rhythms

• Consciousness is awareness of
internal and external stimuli
• Biological rhythms are internal
rhythms of biological activity 
• A circadian rhythm is a
biological rhythm that takes
place over a period of 24 hours
such as our sleep wake cycle
The Biological Clock
Sleep Disruptions

• Jet lag: collection of symptoms brought on by travel from

one time zone to another that results from the mismatch
between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
• Rotating shift work: work schedule that changes from early
to late on a daily or weekly basis
• Sleep debt: result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
Consequences of Insufficient Sleep
What is Sleep?

• Low levels of physical

activity
• Reduced sensory awareness.
• Regulated by homeostatic
and circadian mechanisms
• Patterns of activity of the
brain measured by
electroencephalography
(EEG) shown at right
Areas of the Brain involved in sleep

• Pineal gland secretes melatonin

• Pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH),
luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone 
Why We Sleep

• Adaptive Function – Sleep conserves energy or keeps us safe from

predation but little research supports these ideas
• Cognitive Function – Sleep is necessary for cognitive function and
memory formation
REM and NREM Sleep

Sleep can be divided into two different general phases:

• Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is characterized by darting
movements of the eyes under closed eyelids
• Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves
during wakefulness.
• Non-REM (NREM) sleep is subdivided into three stages distinguished
from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain
waves
Sleep Stages
EEG Recordings During Sleep
Stages of NREM Sleep

• Stage 1 sleep: first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between

wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to
sleep
• Stage 2 sleep: second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation;
characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles
• Stage 3 sleep: third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low
frequency, high amplitude delta waves
Why Do We Dream? Some Theories

• Activation-synthesis theory: Dreams are electrical brain impulses that

pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories
• Continual-activation theory: During REM sleep, the unconscious part
of the brain is busy processing procedural memory
• Threat-simulation theory: Dreaming repeatedly simulates potential
threatening events, thus enhancing the mechanisms required for efficient
threat avoidance
• Expectation-fulfillment theory: Dreaming discharges emotional
arousals that haven’t been expressed during the day
Sleep Disorders: Insomnia

Insomnia: consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three

nights a week for at least one month’s time
Treatments:
• Exercise
• Limiting stimulant use
• Cognitive behavioral therapy
Sleep Disorders: Sleep Apnea

• Sleep apnea is when a sleeper’s breathing stops for 10–20 seconds or

longer multiple times in an hour
• Symptoms: snoring and fatigue
• Treatment: Continuous Positive Air Pressure (CPAP) machines shown
below
Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy

Someone with narcolepsy cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune

times
Treatment: Amphetamines
Substance Abuse Disorder

Substance Abuse Disorder: addictive disorder where the

person has a compulsive pattern of drug use
• Physical dependence involves changes in normal bodily
functions
• The user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon
cessation of use
• Tolerance occurs when a person requires more drug to
achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses
• Psychological dependence is an emotional need for the drug
Types of
Psychoactive Drugs
Depressants

• Alcohol
• Suppress central
nervous system activity
• Agonists of the gamma-
aminobutyric acid
(GABA)
neurotransmitter system
Stimulants

• Cocaine, amphetamines,
MDMA (ecstasy),
nicotine, caffeine
• increase overall levels of
neural activity
• agonists of the dopamine
neurotransmitter system
Opioids

• Heroin, morphine, methadone, codeine

• Decrease pain
• Naturally, the body makes small quantities of opioid
compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain
and producing euphoria
• Extremely high potential for abuse
Hallucinogens

• Marijuana, psylocybin (shrooms), mescaline (peyote), LSD.

• Result in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual
experiences
• Impact different neurotransmitters
Hypnosis

• Hypnosis: state of extreme self-focus and attention

in which minimal attention is given to external
stimuli
• Dissociation view: dissociated state of
consciousness
• Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis: people
perform a social role
Meditation

• Clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and

focus
Practice Question

• Compare the effects of depressants with those of insufficient sleep

Quick Review

• What are consciousness and circadian rhythms?

• What are disruptions in biological rhythms, including sleep
debt?
• What are areas of the brain and hormone secretions involved
in sleep?
• What theories explain the function of sleep?
• What are the stages of sleep? What is the difference between
REM and non-REM sleep?
 More Quick Review

• What theories explain why we dream?

• What are the symptoms and treatments for insomnia, sleep
apnea, and narcolepsy?
• How are substance abuse disorders are diagnosed?
• How do depressants, stimulants, opioids, and hallucinogens
impact the brain and body? How are they similar and
different?
• What are hypnosis and meditation?