TECHNICAL REPORT

WRITING
Presented By: Negasa Dandena
 Objectives
By the end of this course, you will able to:
1. Define the term ‘Report Writing’, know some
characteristics of report, how to write report and
blab blab.
2. Know the formatting guidelines to write report
3. Able to identify the three parts of report
4. Able to write proposal by keeping its correct
formatting guidelines, references and so on.
1.1.What is a Report?
A number of writers have made an attempt to answer the question:
“What is a report”?

Some scholars’ definition:

 “In a very general sense, a report is an account of
something… (IT) is usually an answer to a question or a
demand from some other person for information”
(Cooper 1971: 23).
 A formal report presents in organized form the

information that has been requested by an authorized

person (Atkinson and Reynolds 1970: 110).
 Cont’d…
 A report is a communication from someone who has
information, to someone who wants to use information
(Shurter 197: 290).
 A technical report is a written statement of the facts of

situation, project, process or test; how these facts were

ascertained; their significance; the conclusions that have
been drawn from them; the recommendations that are being
made (Mitchell 1974: 11).
In general, a report is defined as:

 a formal communication written for a specific

purpose; which includes a description of
procedures followed for collection and analysis of
data, their significance, the conclusions drawn
from them, and recommendations, if required.
Cont’d…

 The word Report, comes from Latin word

Reportare, which means to carry back.
And, it means:-
“Description of an event where
you are not present”.
1.2. What makes an effective report? (Its X-s)

Clear, concise and accurate

Easy for the audience to understand

Appropriate for the audience

Well organized with clear section headings

 1.3. Importance of Reports
 A report helps an executive perform his functions of
planning and evaluating men and material resources
efficiently.
 It trains the writer in planned and orderly procedures

and logical presentation of ideas and information.

 Report writing develops the power of discrimination,

organization, judgment and communication.

 Why we make a Report?

 To inform
 To make proposals or recommendations for change

 To analyze and solve problems

 To present the findings of an investigation or project

 To record progress
 1.4. Types of Reports

What are our tools to classify reports?

their style
their purpose

format/structure
I. Based on their style, reports can be:

formal
informal
Formal reports are:

long, analytical and impersonal.

This report contains title page, an abstract, table of
contents, bibliography and appendix.
Examples of formal reports are annual report of a
company and external proposal
formal reports are written in manuscript format
Informal reports, on the other hand are:

shorter than formal reports

have no preliminary & supplementary parts
Informal reports are concerned with everyday matters
that require little background.
Sales report & internal proposal are the examples
Informal reports can be written in memo, letter and
manuscript formats.
 II. Based on their purpose, formal
report classified in to 2:

 Informational
 Interpretive/analytical
 i. Informational Report

 contains only the data collected or the facts observed in an

organized form with the objective to present factual information
and very little analysis
ii. Interpretive
Report report, it contains facts, but it also includes an
like an informational
evaluation or interpretation or analysis of data and the reporter’s
conclusions. Additionally, it may also have recommendations for
action.
An interpretive report which consists principally of
recommendations is also called recommendation or recommendatory
report.
 III. Based on their formats/structure
 Routine reports: Routine reports are written in a prescribed
form. All that the report writer has to do is put a tick mark against
certain items listed in the form or write very brief remarks against
them. These reports are usually written for recording routine
matters at regular intervals.
 Examples of routine reports are:

 confidential reports on employees,

 periodic reports on the progress of projects,

 reports on inspection of equipment, blab blab.

 2.1. Formatting guidelines
 Each report should maintain the same internal style and
structure. This Style Guide is formatted as a model and the
guidelines assume that reports will be word processed on a
computer. If you are unsure about how to apply the
formatting guidelines which follow, refer to the Help menu
within the word processor. If reports are to be hand-
written, students should consult their lecturers.
1. Paper and margins
 white A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is
often preferred for assessment purposes
 each major section of the report begins on a new page; this

may be inappropriate for very short sections or short reports

 wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 1.5 cm

on all sides
 bound reports have a left-hand margin of at least 2.00 cm, and

1.5 on the other three sides

2. Page numbering
 the title page should not be numbered
 all other pages may be numbered either in the right-hand upper corner,
or in the center at the bottom of the page
 roman numerals — i, ii, iii, iv etc. — are usually used to number the
preliminary pages (Abstract, Contents etc.)
 Arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the text from the
Introduction page to the end of the Appendices
 alternatively, pages in the Appendices can be numbered internally,
according to the letter of the individual appendix and the number of
pages within each appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1, C2, C3 etc.
3. Headers and footers
 headers or footers position page numbers automatically
 two different headers or footers must be created so that the

preliminary pages are numbered separately from the

text of the report
 student name(s) and ID number(s) can appear in a footer

placed against the right margin in 9 point size.

Format of type and headings
1. Font

 a serif font (such as Times or Palatino) is usually chosen

for the text of a report, as serif fonts tend to be easier
to read
 a different font (such as the sans serif fonts, Helvetica or

Arial) may be used for headings and tables

 the same font should be used throughout the whole report,

unless a second font is chosen for headings and tables

2. Size and style of type
 12 point type is the normal size for the text of a report
 10 point may be used for long, indented quotations, figures

and tables
 italics can be used to emphasis text where necessary (but it

should not be overused, particularly as there may be

confusion with italicized titles)
 underlining or bold is avoided in emphasis of text as it is

distracting the use of precise words may be sufficient to

create the required emphasis
3. Headings
 headings are numbered according to their importance, using the
decimal numbering system
 some writers do not use numbering, but differentiate between

levels of headings through size and style (readability and access to

information are the key considerations)
 headings without text should never appear on the bottom line of a

page
 size and style of headings should vary according to the importance

of the heading.
Cont’d…
 headings can be differentiated using bold type, size and
italics (overuse of underlining should be avoided as it
makes reading more difficult)
 capital letters are for the first letter of the first word in each

heading only; except for any acronyms (e.g. IEEE), trade

names, or personal names and places, which may require
more than one capital (aim for minimal capitalization in
headings as overuse of capital letters slows reading)
Note
 The best headings are:
summary statements rather than questions
not too brief (e.g. ‘Inspection of contaminated site’ is
more explicit than ‘Results’)
not judgmental (e.g. ‘Equipment for review’ is more
neutral than ‘Poor equipment’)
not too long (e.g. ‘The equipment on the Keneni floor
factory’ is unhelpfully long)
4. Decimal numbering system
 decimal numbering of headings is normally used throughout
the text Up to and including the reference list (excluding the
preliminaries)
 Introduction is numbered 1; References have the final number

• too many levels of subheadings should be avoided: third-

level headings are the preferred limit
 fourth-level headings (e.g. 7.2.1.1 ) should only be used if

necessary, but not if there is only one heading at that fourth-

level
Cont’d…
 decimal points are placed between numerals, but not after
them
 Appendices are not numbered using the decimal system;

they can be internally labeled with letters

 omission of decimal numbering in shorter reports or where

there are multiple subheadings, may increase readability

Format of text
1. Justification

 all text and headings can be aligned against the left margin
except for where indentation is appropriate (see
Indentation and centering)
 text may also be justified on the right-hand margin, and full

justification (right and left margins) is often preferred for

formal documents
Line spacing
 1.5 or double line spacing is generally used for work submitted
for assessment; automatic line spacing (as provided with word
processing may be acceptable
 line spacing should be greater at the end of a section so it assists

in separating sections
 line spacing may be decreased between headings and text so it

assists in grouping information; the smallest line space (i.e. a

four point space) may be appropriate before text such as a list of
bullet points
Cont’d…
 extra line spacing should be used in the following
cases:
 to separate paragraphs
 to separate figures, tables, equations and long quotations
from the text
 to separate a main heading from the section of text which
comes before
Indentation and centering
 indenting text at the beginning of a paragraph is unnecessary when an
extra line space is being allowed between paragraphs
 indentation is appropriate for long quotations, complex mathematical
expressions, lists with bullet points (dots •) and the list of headings on
the contents page
 long quotations are usually indented from both the left and right
margins
 figures and tables may be centered in the text
 students may choose to indent each subheading with its associated text,
as shorter lines of text are easier to read; overall length is then affected
Figures and tables
 figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs and maps
 tables summarize data in rows and columns; a dash (—) indicates no
data
 all figures and tables may be centered all should be labelled in bold
with the appropriate consecutive number(figures are generally
labelled at the bottom, and tables at the top)
 another method of labelling figures and tables is to number them
according to the major section where they appear each should have a
simple, descriptive caption which explains the figure or table;
arrows, symbols, or abbreviations should be explained in the text
Cont’d…
 all figures and tables must be referred to in the text (e.g. ‘see
Figure 14’);avoid using words such as ‘Figure above’ or ‘Table
below’
 all should be referenced (either author-date or numerical) if copied

or adapted from another source

 figures and tables can be separated from the text with extra line

spacing; labels and captions can be separated using four point

spacing
Quotations
 quotes of less than two lines (or 30 words) in length should be
inserted ‘within your text within single inverted commas’
(Hadgraft, Robertson & Eaves 1994, p. 23).
 quotes of more than two lines (or 30 words) should be:

 set off from the body of the text in a separate block, indented…

and single spaced. Do not use inverted commas around block

quotations. When using the block format, place the [author-date]
citation on the line below the last line of the quote [or if using the
numerical system of referencing, place the number directly after
the quotation].(Handcraft, Robertson & Eaves 1994, p. 23)
Cont’d…
 changes or additions to a quote should be placed in square
brackets
 e.g. ‘Ambiguity was caused by [financial] statistics being

excluded from the report.’ • words left out of a quote are

indicated by the three points of ellipsis (…) e.g.
‘Ambiguity was caused by…statistics being excluded…’
Components of a report

The components of a report will be determined by the

purpose and complexity of the report. And, most report can
be divided into three main sections:
 preliminary pages

 text of the report

 supplements if appropriate
1. Preliminary pages
 numbered with roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi etc.) except
for the title page which is generally not numbered.
 Not all the components described below will be required in

every report.
 Also, a glossary of technical terms or acronyms might be

added.
 Students can adapt the order of their preliminary pages to

meet any specific instructions given by lecturers or particular

schools.
Should be brief ,informative, simple,
and attractive
 name of the university
 name of the particular engineering school
 name and code of the subject
 title of the report (which is precise and indicates the
topic and scope)
 name of author(s) and ID number(s) (with the family
name underlined)
 name of tutor/supervisor
 date of submission and/or date of experiment as
applicable
declaration of authenticity
It is a signed statement declaring that the report is
the work of the stated author(s). The disclaimer
should appear on a page following the abstract,
and the acknowledgments may be on the same
page.
“I declare the following to be my own work, unless
otherwise referenced, as defined by the University’s
policy on plagiarism … followed by the author’s
signature”
 overview, synopsis or
summary
The abstract should appear on a separate page after the
title page, and it is usually about 100–200 words in
length. The abstract should include the following
elements:
 why? background problem and purpose of the report
 how? brief details of the approach/procedure/methods
 what? important results/findings
 so what? major conclusion(s) and recommendation(s)
 This section is
optional
it is a part in which you acknowledge another
person or organization significantly gave
assistance, editing and Also, students may wish to
thank colleagues or supervisors.
 Sets out the sections and subsections of the
report and their corresponding page numbers.

It should clearly show the structural relationship

between the sections and subsections. A reader
looking for specific information should be able to
locate the appropriate section easily from the
table of contents.
 list of figures
The list is only necessary if more than a few
figures appear in the main text of the report. The
list includes the figure number, caption, and page
number, ordered as in the text.
 list of tables
The list is only necessary if more than a few
tables appear in the main text of the report. The
list includes the table number, caption, and page
number, ordered as in the text
Text of report
 The pages of the text of the report (beginning with the
Introduction) are numbered with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3
etc.). An effective report has clear objectives and presents
information in a logical sequence. A structured approach
assists the reader by providing a framework for reading the
report. An effective structure includes an introduction,
followed by material organized under appropriate headings,
and ends with a conclusion and possibly recommendations.
 Introduction provides the background information needed for the
Introductio rest of your report to be understood. It is usually half to three-
quarters of a page in length. The purpose of the introduction is to
n set the context for your report.

The main sections of the report expand and develop the material
Main sections in a logical and coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined
in the Introduction.

A clear and concise summary of the main points, the context and
significance of the information, a reference to the original
Conclusion aim(s)/purpose(s) of the report, the application(s) of the results,
the limitations and advantages of the findings, the writer’s
judgment/evaluation

Recommend Not all reports include recommendations, but if they are required
recommendations should emerge from the conclusions of the
report. This section is important to those who must act on the
ations findings.
A reference list (not to be confused with a bibliography) must
appear at the end of a report, listing all sources that have been
References referred to in the text. The heading for this list will be
References. May be in Alphabetical & numbered ways.
Appendices
 The Appendices may include material which is incidental to the
report, supportive of the report, or too long or technical to include
in the text; for example, maps, folded diagrams, tables of results,
letters, questionnaires, statistics, and computer program
information. Large maps or figures should be reduced to A3 size
where possible, and multiple folding is discouraged.
 Not all engineering reports will need appendices.

 Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix

B, Appendix C etc.). The text page numbering can continue into

the Appendices, or alternatively
Glossary
 A glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and
their explanations. If, however, the number of such words is
small, they are generally explained in the footnotes. Whether
you should include a glossary in your report will depend
upon who is going to read your report. If the reader’s field of
expertise is the one to which your report relates, there is no
need for a glossary. But if the audience is drawn from other
areas, it is advisable to give a glossary.
Index
 The index is intended to serve as a quick guide to the
material in the report. It enables the reader to locate easily
any topic, sub-topic or important aspect of the contents.
There is a need for giving and index only in bulky reports
where the Table of contents cannot do this job. Entries in
the index are made in alphabetical order and cross-
referenced. All page numbers on which information about
an entry is available are mentioned against it.
Writing a section of a report
 The most important word in the preceding subtitle is the word
process. A process is a series of steps from beginning to end for
achieving a desired result.
 The writing process includes five steps: prewriting, writing,

rewriting, finalizing, and proofreading. The steps remain the

same for any type of writing: a single sentence, narrative,
speech, proposal, instruction, summary, description, paragraph,
short story, novel, report, memo, letter, or medical
documentation.
Careful preparation and execution of the plan
The steps are may be as follows:
 Define your purpose
 Define your scope
 Determine your audience
 Collect the data
 Organize the material
 Make an outline
 Rough Draft
With a logically organized outline and the necessary
illustrations already prepared, writing the rough draft.
 Try to start writing the first version of the draft
immediately after completing the outline while
the ideas developed there are still fresh in your
mind. Write this first version as rapidly as
possible. Concentrate on what you want to say
rather than how to say it
 Proofed Draft
 After you write the first draft of your writing, the
remaining one is actually editing your rough draft
whether it contains grammatical, punctuation and
other types of errors.
 One last step only
 Once you are satisfied with the
corrections, rewrite or type the final
version.
 The last step
 Edit your writing if there is an error
occurred during your writing;
spelling, grammar, punctuation, blab
la.
Requirements of Reports
1. Clarity

 The purpose of a technical report is to transmit conclusions and

their supporting evidence. To do this, your report must convey
your exact meaning to the reader. The text must be clear and
unambiguous, mathematical symbols must be fully defined, and
the figures and tables must be easily understood.
 Clarity must be met from the readers' point of view. What may be

clear to you as the author may not be clear to your readers.

Remember, you are intimately familiar with the work, but they are
not. You must continually reexamine your rough drafts with a
reader's critical eye.
2. Conciseness
 Your report should be told with the
fewest possible words and illustrations. Help your readers by omitting
everything irrelevant to the results and conclusions.
 On the other hand, do not condense reports at the expense of your
readers' understanding. Give enough information to enable them to
understand clearly what you are describing and why you are
describing it. Include enough background information to make the
context clear. Do not assume that they will remember details of a
previous report—or have even read it. Include all details needed to
understand the current report. In short, make your reports brief but
comprehensible.
3. Continuity
 Reports should tell a complete story as logically and
interestingly as possible. This requires continuity between
succeeding sentences, paragraphs, and sections and
between the written text and the figures and tables.
 Transitional words, phrases, sentences, or even paragraphs

may be needed to lead your readers through the story. But

overusing transitions can slow the pace of your narrative.
4. Objectivity
 Should achieve its objective and show restraint.
 Do not try to hide deficiencies in your research.

 Tell your readers frankly what your assumptions were, what your probable

errors are, and what you may not understand about the results.
 In addition to being honest, be tactful. If you are faced with the problem of

presenting technical results that may conflict with previous results or with
the personal prejudices of some readers, refrain from making dogmatic
statements and avoid sounding egotistical. Your readers will be persuaded
by facts, but they may become irritated if you attempt to impress them with
your cleverness or to claim credit for accomplishments. Write to express,
not to impress
 Note Making and Referencing
1. Note Making (Quoting, Paraphrasing&
Summarizing)
Quoting
involves copying short sentences or passages
from the original text word-for-word
places copied wording within “quotation

marks” 
includes an in-text citation using the
expected formatting style (APA, MLA, etc.)
Paraphrasing
 involves putting a section of a text into your
own words
 changes the words and phrasing of the original

text, but keeps the original meaning of the text

 includes an in-text citation using the expected 

formatting style (APA, MLA, etc.)

Summarizing
 involves stating the main ideas and findings of a
text into your own words
 presents a general overview, so is usually much

shorter than the original text

 includes an in-text citation using the expected 

formatting style (APA, MLA, etc.)

What is referencing?
 All ideas and work of other persons, regardless
of their source, must be acknowledged!
Referencing
 Referencing is a consistent method of
acknowledging another person's ideas which
you have used in your own writing. You must
reference all sources that you use in your work,
including words and ideas, facts, images,
videos, audio, websites, statistics, diagrams and
data.
Why reference?

 Assists you to avoid plagiarism

 Demonstrates the depth and the breadth of your

research and reading

 Enables other researchers to locate your sources

 Supports and strengthens your argument

THANKS