Formation Damage

Part 1

WELL STIMULATION TECHNIQUES

Faisal Zainal Abidin

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 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, student should be able to:

- Describe the concept of formation damage.

- Identify the pre-treatment well tests analysis.

- Explain the sources of formation damage.

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 Formation Damage Concepts

- Formation damage concerns the formation of a volume of rock with a reduced permeability
in the near well-bore zone.

- Formation damage exist from the moment that the drill bit enters the formation until the well
is finally abandoned.

- Formation damage can result from many different sources – drilling, cementing, perforating,
completion/gravel packing, production, injection, work over, stimulation, etc.

- Any changes from original formation permeability are characterized by the “skin” value.

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 Formation Damage Concepts

Classification of Damage mechanism

 Reduced absolute permeability of formation-- results from plugging of pore

channels by particles.

 Reduced relative permeability to oil– results from an increase in water

saturation or oil wetting of the rock.

 Increased viscosity of reservoir fluid– results from emulsions or high-viscosity

treating fluids.

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 Formation Damage Concepts

- Most oil field fluids consist of two phases -liquid and solids.

- Either liquid or solid can cause significant damage through any one of several
possible mechanisms:

 Plugging by solids occurs on the formation face, in the perforation, or in

the formation.

 Solids may be weighting materials, clays, viscosity builders, fluid loss

control materials, lost circulation materials, drilled solids, cement
particles, perforating charge debris, gravel pack or frac sand fines,
precipitated scales, paraffin or asphaltenes.

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 Formation Damage Concepts

 Liquid may be water containing various types and concentrations of solids and
particles and surfactants.

 When liquid is circulated or forced into porous zones by differential pressure,

displacing or commingling with a portion of a virgin reservoir fluid, it may
create blockage due to one of several mechanisms.

 And then may reduce the absolute permeability of the pore, or restrict flow due
to relative permeability or viscosity effects.

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 Formation Damage Concepts

Stimulation treatments are designed to increase the well productivity, either

by:
 Reducing or completely removing the formation damage by chemical matrix
treatment (e.g. acidizing) or

 Bypassing the formation damage by creation of a high permeability channel

by hydraulic fracturing treatment or deep penetration guns

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 Pre-Treatment Well Test

Diagnosis of Formation Damage

It is possible to determine whether formation damage or ‘skin effect’ exists in a
particular well.

 This can be done through well performance curve. By comparing the actual
well performance, the poor performance can be identify whether is due to
formation damage or to mechanical problems in the wellbore.

 From Production logging surveys may show zones which are not
contributing to the total flow stream.

 From pressure build-up or pressure draw-down tests, the magnitude of

damage or ‘skin effect’ can be determined.

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 Sources of formation damage – Fines Movement

The “fines” or small mineral particles (clays, feldspars etc)

which are found on the surface of the sand grains which make
up the rock fabric have come into equilibrium with the
reservoir fluids during geological time.

However, this equilibrium state is disturbed once a well is

drilled and placed on production - high fluid flow velocities
are experienced in the near wellbore region. It has been
observed in the field that, particularly for wells located in
young, unconsolidated sediments that a dramatic reduction in
well productivity can occur when the well production rate is
increased too quickly.

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 Sources of formation damage – Fines Movement

Experiments were carried out in the

laboratory to try to reproduce this
phenomenon. A core sample from the
reservoir was subjected to increasing oil and
combined oil/water flow. It was observed that
the permeability to oil flow remained constant,
even at reasonable flow velocities, while the
permeability began to be reduced at a critical
flow velocity when the core was subjected to a
combined oil/water flow regime.

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 Sources of formation damage – Fines Movement

Further experiments were performed in

which the actual flow through the pore
spaces could be observed visually – The
figure shows that the small, loose
particles present on the sand grain
surface remain in place during oil flow.

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 Sources of formation damage – Fines Movement

However, these fines become mobile once

the wetting phase (water, in this case) is
flowing at a rate greater than this critical
value. Mobilisation of the fines allows
them to move to the pore throats where, if
chance dictates that a number of these
particles are present at the same time,
blockage can occur reducing the
permeability and well Productivity Index.

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 Sources of formation damage – Fines Movement

Remedial measures include:

•Controlled, slow bean up of the well reduces the number of particles that are
mobilised at any one time, leading to a lower chance of blockage at the pore throats.
Small increases in production rate allow the fines to be “cleaned out” of the
formation at low rates (and concentrations); so that the desired well production rate
(and drawdown) can be achieved while maintaining the near wellbore rock
permeability by preventing pore throat bridging.

•Fines control treatments. Surfactants to change the formation wettability However,

experience shows that many such "wettability“ treatments have a limited lifetime
and the formation reverts to its original wettability.

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 Sources of formation damage – Scale

Scale refers to the precipitation of organic or inorganic

material in the surface facilities, the well itself or the near
wellbore formation, . This scale may block the pores in the
formation or even the perforations (reducing well inflow)
or block the tubing (reducing well outflow) or impede the
operation of well accessories e.g. prevent the operation of
the Surface Controlled Sub Surface Safety Valve
(SCSSSV).

The figure shows a tubing which, on recovery from the

producing well, was found to have the area available to
flow reduced by 75% due to an inorganic scale.

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 Sources of formation damage – Scale

In all cases the precipitation is triggered by a chemical instability that has been
created by a change to the original equilibrium conditions achieved with the
formation fluid over geological times. This can be due to:

A decrease in temperature during flow up the tubing

A decrease in pressure during the reservoir depletion or during flow up in the

tubing

Mixing with a chemically incompatible fluid.

Two types of organic scales - wax and asphaltenes - are encountered while a
multitude of inorganic scales have been observed.

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 Sources of formation damage – Inorganic Scale

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 Sources of formation damage – Inorganic Scale

Well productivity can only be reestablished by removing the scale material. This is
achieved by:

• Dissolving the scale (in the formation, well or facilities) using a suitable solvent.

For Example:

 NaCl salt can be dissolved by water.

 Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) is very difficult to dissolve; suitable solvents are

expensive and can only dissolve a limited amount of material.

• Drilling out the “difficult to dissolve” scales coupled with, if necessary,

reperforating to bypass perforations blocked by scale; has been found to be effective.

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 Sources of formation damage – Organic Scale

WAX

Many crude oils will form a solid precipitate when they are
cooled. This solid, known as wax, varies in form from a soft to a
brittle solid.

The (solid) wax is dissolved in the crude oil at reservoir

temperatures and forms a crystalline precipitate when the
temperature reduces below the cloud point (the temperature at
which the first (micro) seed crystals appear).

The temperature difference between the reservoir temperature

and the cloud point ranges from only a few degrees centigrade
to many tens of degrees. Pressure changes only have a minor
effect on the value of the cloud point temperature.

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 Sources
Sources
Sources
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formation
formation
formation
damage
damage
damage
– Organic
- WAX Scale

WAX
The amount of wax dissolved in the crude oil is also highly variable
- from less than 1% wt to such high values (> 50% wt) that the
complete crude sample turns into a semi-solid, unpumpable mass.

The wax is normally kept in solution in the crude oil by ensuring

that the temperature is maintained above the cloud point at all
times. This involves the insulation of flow lines, tanks, as well as the
use of heaters where appropriate. The rate of agglomeration of the
wax crystals can also be reduced by the addition of an inhibitor.

The maintenance of this minimum temperature is easiest when the

wells are flowing, - since heat is being continually supplied to the
system.

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 Sources
Sources
Sources
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formation
formation
formation
damage
damage
damage
– Organic
- WAX Scale

WAX (Long term) shut downs represent a problem, especially for long flow lines or
pipelines. The long flow lines and low water temperatures (< 4ͦͦC) associated
with satellite developments in deep waters, represent a challenge that is
currently being researched e.g. development of more effective insulation
materials.

Wax will typically start to form on the inner surface of the tubing or the flow
line; since this is the coldest point. Once formed, the wax can be removed by:

-Mechanical action (scraping)

-Dissolving in hot Stock Tank crude oil (cheap and readily available) or in
solvents.

-Dissolving in solvents, its more expensive, but can dissolve a higher

concentration of wax.

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 Sources
Sources
Sources
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formation
formation
formation
damage
damage
damage
– Organic
- WAX Scale

ASPHALTENES They are made up of a complex mixture of asphaltenes, resins and

maltenes which were originally present in the crude oil under original
reservoir conditions.

The precipitation process is triggered by pressure reductions -

asphaltene precipitation is often first observed near the bubble point.

Laboratory experiments on the effect of pressure on the stability of an

asphaltenic crude have shown that there are two regions of stability.
One of these is normally above the bubble point pressure (as discussed
earlier) while there is a second region of stability at low pressures.

Asphaltenes are thus mainly precipitated at intermediate pressures.

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 Sources
Sources
Sources
ofofof
formation
formation
formation
damage
damage
damage
– Organic
- WAX Scale

The following summarises operational field experience from a number of

ASPHALTENES fields:

-Asphaltene precipitation may be initially observed in the facilities.

Precipitation can also occur in the reservoir. Despite this, field reports of
formation damage due to asphaltene precipitation in the reservoir are rare.

-Solid asphaltene is normally removed mechanically from the well and

facilities. Mechanical removal was until recently necessary because
asphaltenes are poorly soluble in most solvents.

-Large scale asphaltene precipitation can occur when the asphaltenic crude
oil is contacted by acid. This effect is particularly severe when the acid
contains ferric cations (Fe3+) e.g. from reaction of the acid with rust.

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 Sources
Sources
Sourcesofof
offormation
formation
formationdamage
damage
damage -–WAX
Pressure Reduction

The reservoir pressure will be reduced during its producing lifetime. This can trigger
a number of operational problems which result in formation damage.

• Sand production

• Compaction of the reservoir producing interval. This reservoir drive mechanism is

beneficial since it will lead to an increased recovery of the oil originally in place; but it
may also bring extra operational costs due to damage to the wells themselves. Casing
and tubing can be squeezed into an oval rather than a round shape.

• Fault creation or reactivation {i.e. (mini) earthquakes). Creation of extra faults may
lead to improved inflow while fault reactivation may result in previously sealing faults
becoming “leaky.”

• Reduced formation permeability. This is normally minor, but catastrophic pore

collapse to zero permeability has been observed for some chalks when a certain rock
effective stress value is exceeded.
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 Sources
Sources
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formation
formationdamage
damage
damage-–WAX
Stimulation

Well stimulation can also causing formation damage unless proper thought is given to
fluid selection.

• Reaction products generated by the reaction between the injected acid and the
formation rock may precipitate, causing a reduced permeability (formation damage).

• The acid may weaken the rock, by attacking the intergrain cement so that (normally
temporary) sand production is observed when the well is returned to production.

• The above deconsolidation process may generate “fines” which can migrate and
block pore throats.

• Acid can be incompatible with crude oil leading to formation of a solid “sludge”
which can block pores or a viscous acid / oil emulsion formation.

• A further form of acid/crude oil incompatibility is the formation of a highly viscous

water/oil emulsion.

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 THANK YOU

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