Non Destructive Testing: Principal Features of The Main NDT Methods

Welding Inspection
Non Destructive Testing

Principal Features of the main NDT Methods
Istituto Italiano della saldatura

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Introduction
• Inspections of a structure or
of mechanical component are
usually performed applying
more than one NDT method
• When it is possible, a good

operational practice is
combining at least one
volumetric method (able to
investigate the whole
thickness) with one superficial
method (more sensible on the
surface)
• This presentation describes

the main characteristics of the
most common NDT methods
Istituto Italiano della saldatura 2

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Visual Testing
• It is the oldest and most
handy “way” of inspection
• Some applications, in
particular industry areas or
situations, plan that this
method is used as the only
inspection technique or as a
“separate” method (applied
to 100% of surface)
• Many a time, a definite VT

percentage is required as a
support for the other
methods
• Always VT is used as the

first step of the other
methods

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Visual Testing
• Visual inspection
can be DIRECT (non-
interrupted optical
axis) or REMOTE
(interrupted optical
axis)
• A branch of visual
inspection is
ENDOSCOPY, that
uses tools as:
– Boroscopes: rigid
endoscope
– Fiberscopes: flexible
endoscope
– Videoscopes: video
technology

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Visual Testing
• Direct inspection uses

simply tools as magnifying
glasses, mirrors and
gauges
• Portable video unit

allows inspection of large
tanks and vessels, railroad
tank cars, sewer lines
• Robotic crawlers permit

observation in hazardous
tight areas such as air
ducts, reactors, pipeline

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Visual Testing
VT e PT:
PT VT e MT:
MT
• Preliminary surface visual inspection • Preliminary surface visual inspection
• Check of workpiece cleaning • Check of workpiece cleaning
• Check of penetrant removal • Check of workpiece shape and geometry
• Check of right developer application • Check of right application of detection media
• Check of visual conditions for final inspection • Check scorches
• Check of final surface cleaning • Check of visual conditions for final inspection
• Check of final surface cleaning

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Visual Testing
VT e RT:
• Preliminary check of surface, shape and geometry
• Check of geometry of beads in multipass joint VT e UT:
UT
• Check of darkroom parameters (lighting, wet and dry • Preliminary surface visual inspection
zones) • Check of workpiece shape and geometry
• Check of film processing • Check of workpiece cleaning
• Check of film viewing (density, contrast, lighting • Check of right coupling media application
conditions) • Check of final surface cleaning
• Check of film filing
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Penetrant Testing
• PT is based on the physico-chemical
phenomenon called CAPILLARITY: a liquid,
characterized by an high wettability on the
checked material, is applied on its surface where
can penetrate into possible imperfections
• After a right time of penetration (dwell time),

excess of penetrant must be removed by means
of another product such as water or specific
removers
• Then, a developer is applied: this product has

the purpose of absorbing the penetrant from
imperfections.
So the penetrant leaves indications of them.
• Finally, after the inspections phase, workpiece

surface has to be cleaned in a thorough way

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Penetrant Testing
• PT can be successfully applied only when
surface conditions are proper: indeed roughness,
primers, dirt, oxides do not allow the liquid to seep
• PT can be used to investigate surface made of

every material as long as at the interface there is
a good compatibility between the liquid and the
workpiece (wettability)
• By means of PT it is possible to detect all the

defects (cracks, laps, porosity, disbands) that are
“surface breaking” and are not contaminated
• Sensitivity varies according to what technique is

used. In certain application, using a post-
emulsifiable fluorescent liquid, it is possible to get
1/10 mm flaws

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Penetrant Testing
According to how excess of penetrant is removed from the surface, there are 3
groups of liquids
• Water-Washable
• Solvent-Removable
• Post-Emulsifiable

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Penetrant Testing
According to visual conditions of inspection, it is possible to classify penetrants into 2
groups:
• Visible-Dye Penetrants: they produce indications that can

be seen in daylight or in an artificial “white” light (standard
lamps). Inspection makes use of colour contrast between
penetrant (Red Pigment) and developer (White Substance)
• Fluorescent Penetrants: They produce indications that

can be seen in “black” light (Ultraviolet Radiation Source).
Inspection makes use of human eye’s sensitivity to small
light source in environmental darkness
• Double-Use Penetrants: they produce indications that can

be seen in both the light conditions described before

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Magnetic Particle Testing

• Workpieces are magnetized and the surface is
spread of ferromagnetic particles (visible dye or
fluorescent)
• Particles are attracted by the magnetic field lines

going out of the surface where there are superficial or
sub-superficial imperfections (Magnetic Leakages)
• A pile of particles will produce:

– a clear indication if the magnetic field &/or the
defect are orthogonal to each other and the
defect is superficial
– a soft indication if the magnetic field &/or the
defect are not orthogonal to each other and the
defect is sub-superficial
• After the inspection, workpieces are cleaned and,

sometimes (magnetic arc blow), demagnetized

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features

• This method can be applied only to Ferromagnetic
Materials
• MT is not as influenced by superficial conditions

(roughness, dirt, oxides) as PT is, but MT is more
influenced by shape and geometry of the workpiece.
Differences in cross-section can be cause of non-
relevant indications
• MT can detect every discontinuity having a different

permeability from permeability of workpiece’s material
• MT is a flexible technology able to be successfully

used for “in-service” & “in-field” inspection and the
physical principle MT is based on allows testing of
galvanizations, coatings, paintings & chromium-
plating too

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features

Magnetization can be produced by means of Electrical Systems or Magnetic Systems
Electrical Systems Magnetic Systems

- Prods and Stationary Equipment - - Permanent Magnets, Yokes, Coils -
• Sensitivity generally higher • Generally more useful for “in-field” inspection

• Can produce alteration or harm of the structure • More safety
• Can use DC, AC & Rectified Current • Can use DC, AC & Rectified Current
• Can use Dry and Wet (ONLY water) Particles • Can use Dry and Wet (water and mineral oil)
Particles

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features

Electric Current
• Alternating:
Alternating moves the particles, is not able to detect sub-superficial
flaws (Skin Effect), has a high sensitivity on the surface
• Direct: needs a specific generator, can detect sub-superficial flaws, has
a lower sensitivity on the surface
• Rectified: gives good results both in the surface and in the sub-surface,
represents a compromise solution
Detection Media
As in PT, inspection can be done in “white” light or in “black” light
according to what pigment particles are coated by.
Both the types can be DRY or WET:
• DRY: have high weight and dimensions (50-300 m) and are adequate
to detect sub-superficial imperfections
• WET:
WET powder is in suspension in a liquid vehicle that improve the
distribution and makes non plane surfaces controllable.
As a vehicle it is possible to use water (with additives) or light mineral oil

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Radiographic Testing
• The workpiece is irradiated by ionizing
electromagnetic radiation characterized by a
frequency (i.e. energy) higher than visible light
• Radiation can be produced by specific electrical

devices (X-Ray Equipment) or by natural or
artificial sources termed radioisotopes (-Ray
Equipment)
• The part, placed between the source and a film,

will stop some of the radiation: thicker and more
dense areas will stop more of radiation
• After a right exposure time, films will be

processed, read and filed according to stringent
quality requirements

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
X-Ray Tube Parameters:
• Outer Casing (e.g. Glass)
• Cathode (Negative Electrode) with a filament (A)
• Voltage (kV o MeV)
• Anode (Positive Electrode)
• Target i.e. a metal plate made of W, Au or Pt
• Tube Current (mA)
• Real Focal Spot
• Focal Spot (4x4, 1x1, 0.5x0.5, 0.05x0.05 mm)
a) b) Equipment Control Unit:
• a) Standard (Analogue) Control Unit
• b) Digital Control Unit

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Equipment for Gamma-ray production

• Another characteristic of Isotopes is termed Specific
Activity: activity of one gram of isotope (Bq/g or Ci/g)
• Dimensions of a source are established by this
characteristic
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Radiographic Film: Radiographic Film:

Structure Features
• Definition: capability to give a clear cut outline of the

parts and the flaws too
• Contrast: Difference between radiation intensities
emerging from two adjacent areas (difference
between densities)
• Speed: exposure time necessary to obtain a certain
density
• Grain: size of the emulsion crystals
Relation between characteristics above:

If GRAIN   DEFINITION 
CONTRAST 
SPEED 

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Speed related Contrast and Definition
to Agfa D7 vary when Voltage
varies
Single
Emulsion Film
The most
used films
Automatic Film Processing (T=28°C; t=7 min)

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Fields of Application

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
PROBE
• Ultrasonic waves, characterized by a fixed
frequency and a propagation velocity,
depending on the material, are emitted by a
transducer into the workpiece and reflected (or FLAW
partly transmitted) by the surface of possible
imperfections PLATE
• The purpose of this inspection method can

Oscilloscope or flaw detector screen
be: detection of discontinuities, thickness
measurement, study of materials properties
initial
pulse
• Ultrasonic energy reflected (or transmitted)
by the defects is the parameter that back surface
echo
characterizes their type, size and location crack
echo
• UT is the most complete NDT method but it
is also the most difficult to learn and to apply
by the operators 0 2 4 6 8 10

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
• The most commonly used frequencies in
ultrasonic testing range from 25 kHz up to 25
MHz
• High frequency values have to be used when a FLAW

high resolution is required, indeed the smallest
PLATE
imperfections can be detected by using the
highest frequencies .High frequencies can
penetrate less thick workpieces than low
frequencies, indeed high frequencies are more
influenced by attenuation phenomena
(absorption, diffusion, grain size)
• Therefore, UT method becomes very difficult

when it is necessary to check some materials
such as Cr-Ni Stainless Steel and Ni Alloys:
indeed they have a coarse structure but a very
high sensitivity is required

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers
They are made up of a material (i.e.
quartz) able to be deformed when a
voltage is applied to the opposite
surfaces
• Electrostrictive Transducers
They are made up of a material (i.e.
sintered ceramic) in which an external
electric field generates an electric
polarization along with a mechanical
deformation. They are the most common
• Magnetostrictive Transducers
They are made up of a ferromagnetic
material in which an external magnetic
field generates a mechanical
deformation. They are especially used to
test concrete
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Mechanical Strength:
It should be very high,
especially when low
thickness is used (high
frequency). Lithium
Sulphate is very brittle
Critical Temperature:
It should be high to
allow high temperature
inspection
Chemical Stability:
It should be as high as
possible
US Energy Production:
It is estimated by using k factor
US Energy Reception:
It is estimated by using h factor
Acoustic Impedance:
It should be low cause of acoustic coupling and vibrations damping

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Waves Types
Longitudinal (or Compression) waves: especially Transverse (or Shear) waves: especially used to
used to test forging products and rolling products test welded joints

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Waves Types
• Surface (or Compound or Rayleigh) waves:

especially used to test corrosion damages
• Lamb (or Plate) waves: especially used to test sheets

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
• Propagation velocity of ultrasonic waves
depends on the material. Additionally, for each
material, there is a specific velocity for each
type of wave (longitudinal, transverse…)
FLAW
• In general, within the same medium:
PLATE
– VL> VT
– VT > VS
• Mathematical expressions show that

propagation velocities do not depend on
frequency nor direction of propagation (only
Lamb waves also depend on thickness of the
workpiece and frequency of vibration)
• In general, the denser the material, the lower

the sound velocity and the stiffer the material,
the higher the sound velocity

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
BEAM ATTENUATION
There are two big phenomena responsible for the attenuation of
ultrasonic waves
• Geometrical Attenuation: in the far field of the irradiation field,

US beam is characterized by a geometrical divergence.
Divergence is proportional to the US wavelength and inversely
proportional to the diameter of the transducer
• Structural Attenuation: is linked

to the energy dissipation in the
workpiece material due to
phenomena like absorption and
diffusion. Structural attenuation
causes decrease in acoustic
pressure in relation to the
distance, according to an
exponential law. Coarse
structures have a bigger
coefficient of attenuation than
fine structures.

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Presentations of the Indications
• A-SCAN: the discontinuity is

represented on the screen of a cathodic
ray tube as a peak (echo)
• B-SCAN: the discontinuity is displayed
on the screen of a cathodic ray tube as it
could be seen on a cross section of the
test piece
• C-SCAN: the discontinuity is displayed
on the screen as if it was projected on a
plane parallel to the surface being tested
• P-SCAN/T-SCAN: the processing of the
data got at the same time by the three
previous allows 3D presentations to be
formed. This visualisation way is used in
specific field

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
TECHNIQUES
Contact Technique:
Transducers are placed on
the surface of the
workpiece. Contact
conditions are improved by
means of a coupling
material. Emission echo
and 1st interface echo are
so close that are indistinct.
• Easy practice
• Few equipment
• Fit to test big and
complex products
• Fit to manual testing
in “in-service”
inspection
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Contact Factors: application of the contact
technique requires careful examination of the
surface conditions. The main factors that
must be analyzed are:
• Roughness
• Paint or Coating layers
• Oxide layers
• Depressions &/or Notches
Main Coupling Materials:

1) water - is combined with wetting and antioxidant agents (used also in immersion technique tests like “Squirter”)
2) oil - is the most used in contact tests because of it remains on the surface for a long time
3) glycerol - excellent coupling medium by virtue of the good acoustic impedance and cohesion to surface; used mixed
with 2 parts of water and wetting agents
4) gelatine - excellent on rough surfaces. Economical gelatine can be obtained by mixing mathylcellulose water with
glycerol and sodium triphosphate
5) silicone oil - generally used with quarts transducers to test hot pieces (up to 300 °C)

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
PROBES for Contact Technique
Transducers are inserted in suitable sheaths so that can be handled easily
Straight beam US Probe: Angle beam US Probe:
• The beam is perpendicular to the incidence surface of the piece • A wedge, usually made of PMMA, allows a beam of longitudinal
(especially used for rolling and forging products) waves to be sent to the piece with a fixed angle of incidence so that
• The function of the porous block is to produce a sufficient the refracted beam (Refraction Law) has the desired angle
damping of the oscillations emitted by the plate, therefore (especially used for welded joints)
reducing their duration and the Dead Zone (thickness of the test • Behind the transducer there is the damping block and the two
piece near the surface where no imperfections can be detected plates are obtained by cladding the two sides of the transducer
• There is also a plastic layer used to reduce the wear of the • On the interface between the wedge and the piece there is also a
crystal caused by the contact partial reflection: return to the transducer with its zig-zag path
produces disturbances and increases the Dead Zone

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
CONTACT SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Pulse Echo:
Short electric impulses (1÷2 s), with a

regular emission rate, are applied to the
transducer that begins to vibrate. Small Reflector in relation to Big Reflector in relation to the
During the time between two the Beam Section (reflection Beam Section (the one closer
of a part of the beam) “hides” the farther one)
consecutive pulses, the same transducer
usually works as receiver
• High Sensitivity
• Need of only one access side
• Resolution limited by the width of
initial echo (it is not good for thin
pieces)
• Need of a fine structure because
of high diffusion created by a Big Reflector (inclined at such an Porous Structure causes
coarse structure angle that Beam is not reflected Diffusion of the Beam (Grass
on itself) -Clustered Echoes-)
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
CONTACT SCANNING TECHNIQUES
Through Transmission:
This technique requires two

transducers (one Emitter and one
Receiver). Every discontinuity,
matched by US during their
propagation, produces a partial
reflection so the receiver receives
only a part of the initial acoustic
energy
• Fit for sheet (thin rolling
products)
• Need of uniform coupling
conditions between material
and transducers
• Low sensitivity
•No imperfections localization
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
TECHNIQUES
Immersion Technique:
Waterproof transducers are
placed at a fixed distance far
from the workpiece and emit
US to it through a column of
water. The distance between
the first two echoes represents
the “water path”.
• Excellent acoustic
coupling conditions
• Low transducer wear
• Fit to test delicate and
small products
• Fit to automatic or
mechanized testing in
“serial” inspection
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Ultrasonic Testing
Fields of Application

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Common Application of NDT
• Inspection of Raw Products

• Inspection Following Secondary
Processing
• In-Services Damage Inspection

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Inspection of Raw Products
• Forgings
• Castings
• Extrusions

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Inspection of Secondary Processing
• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Inspection For In-Service Damage
• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Power Plant Inspection

• Periodically, power plants are shutdown
for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current probes into
heat exchanger tubes to check for
corrosion damage
Jet Engine Inspection

• Aircraft engines are overhauled after being
in service for a period of time
• They are completely disassembled, cleaned,
inspected and then reassembled
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection is used to
check many of the parts for cracking

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Wire Rope Inspection

• Electromagnetic devices and visual
inspections are used to find broken
wires and other damage to the wire
rope that is used in chairlifts, cranes
and other lifting devices

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Storage Tank Inspection

• Robotic crawlers use
ultrasound to inspect
the walls of large
above ground tanks for
signs of thinning due to
corrosion
• Cameras on long
articulating arms are
used to inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage
ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the manufacturing
of aircraft
• NDT is also used to find cracks and
corrosion damage during operation of
the aircraft
• A fatigue crack that started at the site
of a lightning strike is shown below
Pipeline Inspection
• NDT is used to inspect pipelines to
prevent leaks that could damage the
environment. Visual inspection,
radiography and electromagnetic testing
are some of the NDT methods used

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Rail Inspection
• Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles of
rail to find cracks that could
lead to a derailment

ENTE MORALE
NDT Features
Bridge Inspection
• Corrosion, cracking and
other damage can all
affect a bridge’s
performance
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in
loss of 47 lives
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years
• Some bridges are fitted
with acoustic emission
sensors that “listen” for
sounds of cracks growing
ENTE MORALE

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Welding Inspection

Non Destructive Testing

Istituto Italiano della saldatura

• When it is possible, a good

• This presentation describes

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 2

• Many a time, a definite VT

• Always VT is used as the

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 3

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 4

• Direct inspection uses

• Portable video unit

• Robotic crawlers permit

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 5

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 6

• After a right time of penetration (dwell time),

• Then, a developer is applied: this product has

• Finally, after the inspections phase, workpiece

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 8

• PT can be used to investigate surface made of

• By means of PT it is possible to detect all the

• Sensitivity varies according to what technique is

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 9

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 10

• Visible-Dye Penetrants: they produce indications that can

• Fluorescent Penetrants: They produce indications that

• Double-Use Penetrants: they produce indications that can

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 11

Magnetic Particle Testing

• Particles are attracted by the magnetic field lines

• A pile of particles will produce:

• After the inspection, workpieces are cleaned and,

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 12

Magnetic Particle Testing

• MT is not as influenced by superficial conditions

• MT can detect every discontinuity having a different

• MT is a flexible technology able to be successfully

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 13

Magnetic Particle Testing

Electrical Systems Magnetic Systems

• Sensitivity generally higher • Generally more useful for “in-field” inspection

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 14

Magnetic Particle Testing

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 15

• Radiation can be produced by specific electrical

• The part, placed between the source and a film,

• After a right exposure time, films will be

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 16

a) b) Equipment Control Unit:

• a) Standard (Analogue) Control Unit

• b) Digital Control Unit

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 17

Equipment for Gamma-ray production

Radiographic Film: Radiographic Film:

• Definition: capability to give a clear cut outline of the

Relation between characteristics above:

Istituto Italiano della saldatura 19