IDENTIFICATION

Dr. Pranabesh Bharatee

Assistant Prof. & Head
Dept. of Forensic Medicine
MJN MC&H, Cooch Behar.
 IDENTIFICATION

DEFINITION:
Identification is the determination of the individuality of a
person based on certain physical characteristics, i.e. exact
fixation of personality.

TYPES:
1) Complete
2) Incomplete
 WHERE NECESSARY ??
(1) Living persons.
(2) Recently dead persons.
(3) Decomposed bodies.
(4) Mutilated bodies, and
(5) Skeleton.

It is necessary:
(1) In criminal cases like persons accused of assault, murder,
rape, etc., interchange of newborn babies in hospitals,
impersonation, etc.
(2) In civil cases like marriage, inheritance, passport, insurance
claims, disputed sex, missing persons, etc.
 CORPUS DELICTI
 It is the body of offence; the essence of crime.

 Means the facts of any criminal offence, e.g. Murder

 Corpus delicti of the murder is the fact that a person died from
unlawful violence.

 It includes body of the victim and other facts which are

conclusive of death by foul play.

 If the victim’s identity is not known, it becomes difficult for

police to solve the crime.
 VARIOUS ID DATAS
1. Race and religion.
2. Sex.
3. Age.
4. General development and stature.
5. Complexion and features.
6. External peculiarities, such as moles, birthmarks,
malformations, scars, tattoo marks, wounds, occupation
marks, etc.
7. Anthropometric measurements.
8. Fingerprints and footprints.
9. Teeth.
 VARIOUS ID DATAS

10. Personal effects : clothes, pocket contents, jewellery, etc.

11. Handwriting.
12. Speech and voice.
13. Gait, tricks of manner and habit.
14. Memory and education.

N.B: 11to 14 are useful only in the living.

 RACE DETERMINATION
Race can be determined from-
(1) COMPLEXION : It is of limited value. The skin is brown in
Indians, fair in Europeans and black in Negroes.

(2) EYES: Indians have dark eyes, a few have brown eyes.
Europeans have blue or grey eyes.

(3) HAIR: Indians have black, thin hair. Europeans fair or light
brown or reddish. Indians, Mongolians and Europeans have
straight or wavy hair. Negroes have wooly hair.
 DETERMINATION OF RACE

(4) CLOTHES: The dress may be helpful sometimes.

(5) SKELETON:
The Cephalic Index (C.I.) is important.

C.I. = Maxinrum breadth of skull x 100

Maximum length of skull
 RACE DETERMINATION
The skull reflects certain characteristics of population
ancestry that are reasonably dependable.

 Cephalic Index.
 Shape of skull.
 Shape of orbit & nasal aperture.

Caucasoid
Caucasoid
C.I=
C.I=70-75
70-75
Dolico-cephalic
 RACE DETERMINATION
The skull reflects certain characteristics of population
ancestry that are reasonably dependable.

 Cephalic Index.
 Shape of skull.
 Shape of orbit & nasal aperture.

Negroid
Negroid
C.I=
C.I=75-80
75-80
Mesati-cephalic
 RACE DETERMINATION
The skull reflects certain characteristics of population
ancestry that are reasonably dependable.

 Cephalic Index.
 Shape of skull.
 Shape of orbit & nasal aperture.

Mongoloid
Mongoloid
C.I=
C.I=80-85
80-85
Brachy-cephalic
 RELIGION

 Hindu males are not circumcised ,Sacred thread, necklace of

wooden beads, caste marks on forehead, tuft of hair on back of
head, and piercing of ear lobes if present are helpful. Hindu
females may have vermilion (cinnabar) on head, silver toe
ornaments,

 Muslim males are circumcised and may have marks of corns and
callosities on lateral aspects of knees and feet.
 SEX DETERMINATION

Sex has to be determined in cases of -

1. Heirship,
2. Marriage,
3. Divorce,
4. Legitimacy,
5. Impotence,
6. Rape,
7. Sports etc.
 SEX DETERMINATION
WAYS OF ASCERTAINING SEX
1. Genetic Sex- Study of sex chromatins by examining skin,
buccal mucosa, polymorphs etc.

2. Hormonal Sex- Biochemical study of hormones.

3. Anatomical Sex- Physical exam. of body.

4. Gonadal Sex- Histological exam. Gonads ( testis or ovary)

5. Psychological Sex- Psychological assessment of the person’s

behaviour.
 SEX DETERMINATION
DATA THAT HELP IN SEX DETERMINATION-
1. Wearing.

2. Physical character including general appearance of

face, distribution of hair, voice, gait etc.

3. Study of Gonads.

4. Study of sex chromatin

5. Morphology of bones.
 SEX DETERMINATION
MALE :
A male is one who possesses at least one testis which secrets
spermatozoa.

FEMALE:
Is one who possesses at least one functioning ovary.

INTERSEX:
It is the intermingling of the character of both the sexes in one
individual in various proportions.
 SEX DETERMINATION
DIFFICULTIES IN SEX DETERMINATION :-
1. Hermaphrodites ( Intersex )
2. Concealed Sex.
3. Advanced decomposition.
4. Skeletonized body.

CONCEALED SEX.
Criminals may conceal their sex to avoid detection by changing
dress or by other means.

ADVANCED DECOMPOSITION
Uterus and Prostate are last organs to decompose.
 NUCLEAR SEX
1. Barr body-
 It is a small planoconvex mass, (about one micron in
diameter) lying near nuclear membrane.
In the buccal smear, the percentage of nuclei containing
chromatin body ranges from 0-4 in males and 20 to 80 in
females.
 NUCLEAR SEX
2. Davidson body
In females, neutrophil leucocytes contain a small nuclear
attachment of drumstick form in up to six percent of cells.
This is absent in males.
 INTERSEX
CLASSIFICATION

1. Gonadal Agenesis
In this condition, the testes or ovaries have never developed.
The nuclear sex is negative.

2. Gonadal dysgenesis.
 In this condition, the external sexual structures are present,
but at puberty the testes or the ovaries fail to develop.
Example : Klinefelter’s and Turner’s Syndrome
 INTERSEX
(A) KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME :

 In this condition, the anatomical structure is male, but the

nuclear sexing is female.

The sex chromosome pattern is XXY (47 chromosomes).

It is usually diagnosed when there is a delay in onset of

puberty, behavioural disorders and mental retardation.

Axillary and pubic hair are absent, and hair on chest and chin
are reduced.
 INTERSEX
(A) KLINEFELTER'S SYNDROME
Gynaecomastia, azoospermia,
low levels of testosterone,
sterility, increased urinary
gonadotrophins, and increased
height are common.

Testicular atrophy with

hyalinisation of seminiferous
tubules is seen histologically.
 INTERSEX
(B) TURNER'S SYNDROME :

In this condition the anatomical structure is female, but the

nuclear sexing is male.

It can be recognised at birth by oedema of the dorsum of the

hands and feet, loose skin folds in the nape of the neck, low
birth weight and short stature.

It is characterised by primary amenorrhoea, sterility, lack of

development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics,
increased urinary gonadotrophin excretion,
 INTERSEX
(B) TURNER'S SYNDROME

 A short fourth metatarsal, webbed-neck,

wide-set nipples, high-arched palate,
low-set ears, slow growth, learning
problems,

 Spina bifida, coarctation of aorta, septal

defects, renal defects, Cushing's
syndrome and a high incidence of
diabetes mellitus.

The ovaries do not contain primordial

follicles (ovarian dysgenesis). The sex
chromosome pattern is XO (45
chromosomes).
 INTERSEX
3) True Hermaphroditism : This is a very rare condition of
bisexuality in which an ovary and a testicle or two ovotestis are
present with the external genitalia of both sexes.

(4) Pseudo-hermaphroditism: In this condition gonadal tissue

of only one sex is seen internally, but external appearance is of
the opposite sex.
A) Male pseudohermaphroditism: Nuclear sex is XY, sex organs
and sexual characteristics deviate to female form, because of
testicular feminisation.
B) Female pseudohermaphroditism: Nuclear sex isXX, but
deviation of sex organs and sexual characters towards male
are seen, due to adrenal hyperplasia.
 SEX FROM SKELETON
 The differentiating sexual characteristics begin to
appear after puberty.

 Usually the skull, long bones and pelvis etc. are

considered.
Krogman’s chance of sexing bones
Entire Skeleton 100%
Pelvis 95%
Skull 90%
Pelvis + Skull 98%
Long bones 80%
 GENDER DETERMINATION
PELVIS
MALE FEMALE
1. Subpubic arch narrow and triangular broad and with an
with an inverted inverted U-shape
V-shape

2. The pubic bone long and narrow broad and rectangular

3. Sciatic notch deep and narrow wide and shallow
4. ilial alae high and vertical broad and laterally divergent
5. Obturator Foramina large and oval or round small and triangular
6. Acetabular fossae large and directed laterally Smaller and directed
anterolaterally
7. Sacrum narrow, has a relatively flattened Broad and short with five
curve and has five or more segments and an anterior
segments. concavity.
8. Pelvic inlet triangular or heart-shaped ovoid
 PP
EE
LL
VV
II
SS

MALE FEMALE
MALE FEMALE
PELVIS
 GENDER DETERMINATION
SKULL
TRAIT MALE FEMALE

Frontonasal junction Distinct angulation Smooth, smoothly curved

Orbits Square, set lower on the face, Rounded, higher, relatively

relatively smaller, rounded margins. .. larger, sharp margins.
Supra orbital ridge Prominent and rounded. Less prominent, sharper

Zygomatic arch More prominent Less prominent

Parietal eminences Small Large

Mastoid process Wider, longer, round, blunt. Narrow, short, smooth,

pointed.
Digastric groove More deep less deep
SKULL
SKULL
SKULL
 SEX DETERMINATION

MEDULLARY INDEX

 Medullary diameter / diameter of whole bone x 100

 Sex determination can be done from this
 Usually long bones are taken.
 AGE ESTIMATION
Data that helps in Age estimation-

1. Teeth ( Dental data)

2. Study of bones

3. Secondary sexual character

4. General development in children.

 TEETH
Hardest part of body attached to jaws. It serves to help digest
food, act as a defense mechanism, teeth are made of a crown with
enamel surrounding a pulp.
TOOTH ANATOMY
C
R Enamel
Enamel
O
W Dentine
N Pulp
N Gum
E
C Cementum
K
R
O Bone
O
T Blood vessel

Nerve
 TEETH BASICS
Approx. 32 teeth in adult
mouth
 Temporary- 20 nos.
 Permanent- 32 nos.

Four types of teeth:

o Incisors
 Canine
 Premolars ( only in perm)
 Molars
Types of teeth.
Left to right: Incisor, Canine, Premolar,
molar.
TEETH MORPHOLOGY
I
N
INCISORS-
C
I  Crown is chisel shaped, convex on labial
S
O surface & concave on lingual surface.
R
 Neck is slightly constricted.
 With single root.

C
CANINES-
A
N  Larger than incisors.
I
N  Crown is large and conical.
E
 projects slightly beyond the level of others.
 Root single, larger & thicker than incisor.
TEETH MORPHOLOGY (Conti…)
PREMOLARS-
 Smaller & shorter than canines.
 Crown is nearly circular in cross- section
& compressed mesio- distally.
 Two cusps,
 Roots usually single, may be double.
MOLARS-
M
O  They are largest with broad crown.
L
A
R
 Crown is cubical; convex on labial &
lingual surfaces, flattened on its mesial &
distal surfaces.
 Cusps may be 3, 4 or 5.
 Upper molar has 3 roots & lower 2.
 TEMP. VS PERM TEETH
1. Smaller, lighter, narrower. 1. Heavier, stronger, broader.

2. Ant. teeths are vertical. 2. A little inclined forwards.

3. China white colour. 3. Ivory- white in colour.

4. Neck more constricted.

4. Less constricted.

5. Roots of Molars smaller and

more divergent.
5. Roots larger and less
divergent.
6. A ridge at the junction of
crown with fangs. 6. No ridge.
 DENTAL CHARTING
1. Universal System.

2. Palmer’s Notation.

3. Haderup System.

4. FDI.

5. Modified FDI System.

6. Diagrammatic or Anatomical chart.

THE UNIVERSAL SYSTEM
1. Teeth are given a
specific number.
(Primary teeth are given
specific capital letter).

2. Any dental work done

on surface is noted.

3. Sheets kept on dental

file forever. When
person is missing, files
are transferred to the
missing person’s office.
 PALMER’S NOTATION
Palmer numbered the permanent teeth with numerals
1 to 8 from midline backwards.

Right Left

8 7 65 4 3 2 1 1 2 34 56 7 8

8 76 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 34 5 67 8
 HADERUP SYSTEM
It is similar to palmer notation except it uses a plus
sign (+) to designate upper teeth and a minus sign (-)
for lower.
Right Left

+ 8 +7+ 6+5+ 4+ 3+ 2 +1 +1+ 2+ 3+4 +5+6 +7 + 8

-8 -7-6 -5 -4 - 3 - 2 -1 -1 -2 -3-4 -5 -6 -7 -8
 FDI
i.e., Federation Dentaire Internationale.

A two digit notation capable of indicating tooth and

quadrant was developed. Thus lower right canine
will be numbered 43.

This was adopted as the International standard.

 FDI
A. Permanent teeth. Upper

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Lower

B. Temporary teeth.
Upper
55 54 53 52 51 61 62 63 64 65

85 84 83 82 81 71 72 73 74 75 Lower
 AGE ESTIMATION FROM TEETH

A. Dental Eruption.

B. Secondary changes is teeth.

 DENTAL ERUPTION

Eruption is defined as the superior part of the

crown of the tooth appearing level with the
surface of the alveolar bone.
 FACTS OF TEETH ERUPTION
 Occurs earlier in lower jaw, about 1 yr. earlier
(except lat. Incisor).

 Tooth eruption in female may be 1 yr. before that of male.

 Eruption tends to be earlier in warmer climates & in

urban.

 Depends on ethnic, cultural, hereditary, environmental,

endocrinal and nutritional factors.

 Spacing of jaw after eruption of 2 molar teeth.

ERUPTION OF TEMPORARY
TEETH
( In months)
7-9
8-9
17-18
12-14
20-30

20-30
12-14
17-18
10-12
6-8
ERUPTION OF PARMANENT TEETH

6-8 years

7-9 years
11-12 years
9-11 years
10-12 years
6-7 years
12-14 years
17-25 years
 MIXED DENTITION
About the sixth or seventh year, 1st permanent molar
teeth erupt behind the 2nd temporary molars. After this
temporary teeth begins to fall off.

So the age from 6 to 11 yrs. Our mouth contains both

types of teeth i.e. temporary and permanent and this
age is known as the age of mixed dentition.
No. of permanent teeth = (age in yr. – 5) x 4
No. of teeth in relation to age
 SPACING OF JAW

 The body of the jaw grows posteriorly, and the ramus

is elongated after eruption of second molar teeth.

 If 3rd molar is absent, it should be noted whether

there is space in the jaw behind the second molar
teeth.

 Soft spacing & hard spacing.

 SECONDARY CHANGES
Used for estimation of age beyond 25 years.

1. Gustafson’s method.

2. Boyde’s method.

3. Stack’s method.

4. Chemical method.
 GUSTAFSON’S METHOD
The age estimation of adult over 25 years depends
on the physiological changes in each of the dental
tissues.

1. Attrition.
2. Periodontosis.
3. Secondary dentine.
4. Cementum apposition.
5. Root resorption.
6. Transparency of root.
ATTRITION
ATTRITION
 BOYDE'S METHOD
Cross striations develop in the enamel of teeth,
till the complete formation of enamel. They
represent daily incremental lines.

The age of an individual can be calculated in

terms of days by counting the number of lines
from the neonatal line onwards.

It is useful to estimate the age of a dead infant.

Incremental lines
 STACK'S METHOD
Stack evolved a method to know the age
from the weight and height of the erupting
teeth of child.

This method can be used on both deciduous

and permanent teeth during their erupting
phase.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
1. Identification.
2. Age estimation.
3. Determination of sex. IDENTIFICATION
4. Determination of race.
5. DNA evidence.
6. Bite mark evidence.
7. Injury.
8. Occupation.
9. Habit.
10. Detection of poison.
 DETERMINATION OF SEX

Sex determination is possible from dental tissue.

1. Identifying Y- chromosome in dental pulp tissue

using quinacrine and fluorescent microscopy.

2. Isolation of sex specific banding pattern in DNA

profile of X and Y chromosomes.
 DETERMINATION OF RACE
Teeth can assist in race determination in addition
to the other findings from the skull and skeleton
study.

1. Shovel-shaped incisors in
Mongoloids & Americans.

2. Carabelli’s cusp seen in whites.

3. Taurodontism and enamel pearl

in Mongoloids.
 DETERMINATION OF RACE
(Conti..)
4. In mongoloids permanent molars of lower jaw
have 3 roots.

5. In chinese, Eskimos, Mongoloids 1st premolar of

lower jaw may have 3 cusps.

6. In Europeans, crowns of premolars show increase

in mesio-distal diameter with compression of
bucco-lingual dimension.
 OCCUPATION AND HABIT
May give some clue regarding occupation and habit.

1. Cobblers or tailors usually show notched upper

incisors from wear and tear.

2. Dark brown stains on the back of incisors are seen

in cigarette smokers.

3. Blackish brown or reddish stain indicates habit of

betel nut chewing.
 DETECTION OF POISON
1. Phossy jaw indicates chronic phosphorus
poisoning.

2. Arsenic and mercury can be detected.

3. Colour changes occur in sulphuric and nitric acid

poisoning.

4. Yellowish-brown discolouration or mottling is

seen in flourosis.
 SOURCE OF DNA
 Teeth represent an excellent source of genomic DNA.

 DNA material is extracted by cryogenic grinding of

tooth.

 Even root-filled teeth supply sufficient biological

material for PCR analysis.

 PCR-based analysis produces a DNA profile that can

be compared with known ante mortem samples or
paternal DNA.
BITE MARK
 BITE MARK EVIDENCE

Impressions from teeth alone or in combination with

other mouthparts found on skin or items left at a
scene, usually outline teeth placement.
WHERE BITE MARKS FOUND???
1. Sexual assault.

2. Child abuse.

3. Foodstuffs.( apple, cheese etc.)

4. Police officer.

5. In sporting events.

6. In assault.
VARIOUS BITE MARKS
 NATURE OF BITE MARK
 Comprises of a crop of punctate hemorrhages
varying from small petechiae to large ecchymoses
merging into confluent central bruise.

 Human bite is semicircular or crescentic with a gap

on either side.

 Deep parabolic arch is characteristics of animal bite.

 May be abrasion, bruises or a laceration or in

combination of all.
NATURE OF BITE MARK (Conti..)
 Self- inflicted bite marks are present on
accessible parts e.g. shoulders or arms usually
seen in psychiatric patient or teenage girls.

 Accidental marks from falls on the face and

during fits, biting of tongue and lips may be
there.

 In sexual assault, sucking action may produce

multiple petechial hemorrhages.
 ANALYZING BITE MARKS
1. PHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD.

2. CASTS.

3. SWABBING OF SALIVA.

4. UV ILLUMINATION.

5. PRESERVATION OF BITE MARKS.

 PHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD

Photographed with two scales at right angle to each

other in a horizontal plane.
Photograph of the teeth is taken with special mirrors
which allow all the teeth to be photographed.
Photograph of teeth is matched with the photographs
or tracings of the teeth.
Exclusion is easier than matching.
 CASTS
A plastic substance, such as rubber or silicon based
medium containing catalytic hardner is laid over the
bite mark.

This produces a permanent negative cast of bite mark.

Plaster of Paris can also be taken.

Impression of the upper and lower teeth of the

suspect are taken.
 SWABBING OF SALIVA

Human beings secrete ‘ABO’ antigens

through their saliva during biting.

Swabbing of saliva is done to identify or

exclude assailant from ‘secretor’ status who
exude blood group substances in saliva.

Skin carrying bite mark is removed and

preserved in formalin during autopsy.
 UV ILLUMINATION
 Teeth bite marks which are not visible by naked eye
examination may become visible when examined
under ultraviolet light in a dark room.

 Because in a wound the melanin pigment of the skin

shifts to the periphery or margin of the wound, which
makes the margin prominent.

 This technique will demonstrate invisible bite marks

upto 6 months after infliction.
 DIFFICULTY IN BITE MARK ANALYSIS

1. Inaccuracy of the bite marks:

The impression may not be accurate due to-

 Irregularities of the bitten areas on the human skin.

 Poor quality of the material.

 Time duration between infliction and creation of

model.
A CASE OF BITE MARK EVIDENCE

Paulick (1949) reported the murder of an old man by

whose side was found an apple with characteristic
bite marks.

A prostitute was arrested, and dental examination

proved that the bite marks were produced by her
teeth.
COMPUTER ODONTOLOGY

1.Automatic dental code matching.

2.Odonto Search.

3.Automatic dental identification system.

4.3D Bite mark analysis.

3D Bite mark analysis

3D scans of dental
casts are used to
generate overlays using
various pressure and
deviation.
Automatic dental code matching

Bites are run

through the
computer to
find a match.
 Odonto Search
Different people have the same dental codes.

In the past, the strength of a match between a PM

dental code and an AM dental code was based on
the clinical experience of the dentist.

OdontoSearch provides an objective means of

assessing the frequency of occurrence for a dental
code.
Automatic Dental Identification System

Genuine Matching Distance = 4.22

Query Image

Matching Distance = 27.57

Imposter
A few minutes will produce a list of people who
have the same dental code number.
 CASE (9/11)

At ground zero, among 973 victims identified in the

first year, about 20% of victims were identified using
dental records only.
 CASE (Asian Tsunami)
Around mid-March, (of some
800+ identified bodies) 90%
were identified by dental
records …
“If you post pictures of your loved
ones on the bulleting boards/web
boards, choose picture with a
broad smile so that front teeth
can be seen.
A better approach is to post
dental X-ray films and leave
email/phone number of the A forensic expert examines a film
dentist.” of the teeth of a tsunami victim in
--- Tsunami Relief Phuket of Thailand, on Jan. 11,
website 2005.
 CONCLUSION
Forensic dentistry plays a major role in the
identification of those individuals who
cannot be identified visually or by other
means. The unique nature of our dental
anatomy and the placement of custom
restorations ensure accuracy when the
techniques are correctly employed.
 AGE FROM SKELETON

GROWTH IN INDIVIDUAL BONES

 The bones of the human skeleton are preformed in hyaline cartilage.

 This soft tissue model is gradually converted into hard osseous tissue
by the development of osteogenesis.

 Some bones are ossified from a single centre, e.g. carpus and tarsus.

 Most bones are ossified from several separate centres, one of which
appears near the middle of the future bone.

 In all such bones, their ends are cartilaginous at birth. These terminal
regions are ossified by separate centres, they are said to be secondary
centres.
 AGE FROM SKELETON

 A layer of hyaline cartilage (epiphyseal plate) persists

between the diaphysis and epiphysis.

 The bone increases in length at this epiphyseal plate

(growth plate),until its final dimensions are attained.

 The process of union of epiphysis and diaphysis is called

fusion. Union is a process, not an event.

 For determining the age, skiagrams of the shoulder, elbow,

wrist, hip, knee, ankle, pelvis and skull are taken.
OSSIFICATION CENTRES
OSSIFICATION CENTRES
 AGE FROM SKELETON
 Ageing of bone is more accurate with respect to appearance
of O.C than its fusion.

 The 2ndry O.C of limb bones that appear first are the last
to fuse.

 The epiphyseal lines on the long bones appear as circular

grooves around the ends of the bones, and on radiographs
as irregular lines resembling a fracture.

 Multiple criteria of skeletal age should be employed

wherever possible.
EPIPHYSEAL LINE AS FRACTURE
GA
L ST
AU
N’
SC
HA
RT
 SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERS
IN MALE :
 at about 14 years –
- Fine downy hair around pubes.
- Testes become larger & firmer.
- Penis begins to enlarge.
 At 15 years-
- Hair mod. Grown on pubes.
-hair begins to grow in axilla.
 At 16 years-
- hair on pubis is well grown.
- the external genitals have an adult appearance.
- 16 to 18 years, hair on face began to appear and
- hoarse voice.
 SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERS

IN FEMALE –
 At 13 years-
 the breasts begin to develop,
 the vulva becomes more horizontal due to forward tilting of the
pelvis,
 Pubic hair starts developing on mons veneris. (2 m after breast
change)
 Labia develops and menstruation starts.
 At 14- 15 years
 Well developed pubic hair.
 Axillary hair.
 AGE OF THE FOETUS
1. End of 1st month
i. L - 1cm, Wt.- 2.5 gm.
ii. Eyes – 2 dark spots
iii. Mouth – as cleft
iv. Nucleated RBC – begin to form in placenta.

2. End of 2nd month

v. L – 4cm, Wt. – 10g
vi. Hands & feet-webbed, anus – as dark spot
vii. Ossification centres – in clavicle & maxilla
viii. Placenta begin to form.
 AGE OF THE FOETUS

3. End of 3rd month

i. L – 9cm, Wt. – 30g
ii. Eyes-closed, pm-appears
iii. Neck is formed
iv. Early fingernail development
v. Intestines in abd.

4. End of 4th month

vi. Sex distinguishable externally
vii. Neck-well defined, Head erect
viii. Brain-convolutions begin to form
ix. Lower limbs well developed
x. Placenta & foetus are equal in weight
xi. Meconium begin to form, at the beginning of duodenum.
 AGE OF THE FOETUS

5. End of 5th month

i. Ears stand out from head
ii. Vernix caseosa appears
iii. Early toenail development
iv. Meconium-at the beginning of large intestine.

6. End of 6th month

v. Head & body hair visible
vi. Skin wrinkled & red
vii. Eyebrows & eyelashes appear
viii. Meconium at transverse colon
ix. Testes-close to kidneys.
 AGE OF THE FOETUS

7. End of 7th month (age of viability)

i. L - 35cm, Wt. – 1100g
ii. Fingernails-present & thick
iii. Eyes partially open, pm-disappears
iv. Meconium-in entire L. intestine
v. Testes-at ext. inguinal ring
vi. O.C.-in talus

8. End of 8th month

vii. L – 40cm, Wt. – 2kg
viii. Eyes open, scalp hair-thicker, L – 1.5cm
ix. Nails – fingernails reach tip of fingers, toenails present
x. Left testes-in scrotum
 AGE OF THE FOETUS

9. End of 9th month

i. L – 45cm, Wt. – 2.5kg
ii. Fingernails – reaches beyond finger tips
iii. Skin – pink & smooth
iv. Scrotum – wrinkled, contains both testes.

10. End of 10th month

v. L – 45-50cm, Wt. – 3-4kg
vi. Scalp hair- 3-5cm long, lanugo hair absent, except on shoulders
vii. Skin covered with vernix caseosa
viii. Toenails reach toe tips
ix. U.cord – L – 50-55cm
x. O.C. lower end of femur, upper end of tibia.
 AGE OF THE FOETUS

RULE OF HAASE (1895):

During the first five months of pregnancy the square root
of the length ( in cm. ) gives the approximate age of the
foetus in months, e.g. a foetus of 16 cm. is four months.

During the last five months, the length in cm. divided by

five gives the age in months, e.g., foetus of 35 cm. is 7
months.
 MLI OF AGE
1. CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY
 Any act which is done by a child under seven years of age is not
an offence (Sec. 82, I.P.C.).

 A child between seven and 12 years is presumed to be capable

of committing an offence, if he attained "sufficient maturity of
understanding to judge the nature and consequences of his
conduct on that occasion" (Sec. 83, I.P.C.).

 A child under 12 years cannot give valid consent to suffer any

harm which may occur from an act done in good faith and for
its benefit (Sec. 89, I.P.C.) .
 MLI OF AGE
 A person above 18 years can give valid consent to suffer any harm
which may result from an act not intended or not known to cause
death or grievous hurt (Sec. 87, I.P.C.).

 A person above 18 years can give valid consent to suffer any harm
which may result from an act not intended or not known to cause
death and done in good faith and for its benefit (Sec. 88, I.P.C.).

2. JUDICIAL PUNISHMENT :
 According to the Juvenile Justice (Care and protection of children)
Act, 2000 "juvenile" means a person (boy or girl) who has not
completed 18 year of age.

 No juvenile in conflict with law shall be sentenced to death or life

imprisonment, or committed to prison.
 MLI OF AGE
 The board may advice or warn the juvenile, or order to participate
in group counselling or to be sent to a special home for the period
until he becomes major.

3. RAPE :
 Sexual intercourse by a man with a girl under 18 years even if
she is his own wife, or with any other girl under 18 years even
with her consent is rape· (S.375, I.P.C.).
 MLI OF AGE
4. KIDNAPPING :
 Taking away a boy below the age of 16 years or a girl
below the age of 18 years or a person of unsound mind from
his or her legal guardian without consent will constitute
kidnapping ( Sec. 361 IPC).

 ABDUCTION :
Sec. 362, I.P.C. defines taking away a person by force or
deceitful means.
 MLI OF AGE

5. EMPLOYMENT :
A child below 14 years cannot be employed for any type of work. A
person completing 15 years (adolescent) is allowed to work in a factory
as an adult, if a fitness certificate is issued by a certifying surgeon.

6. ATTAINMENT OF MAJORITY :
A person attains majority on the completion of 18 years, but when a
person is under the guardianship of Court of Wards, or is under a
guardian appointed by the Court, he attains majority on the completion
of 21 years.
 MLI OF AGE
7. EVIDENCE:
Competency for giving evidence depends on understanding but not
on age. A child of any age can give evidence if the Court is
satisfied that the child is truthful (S. 118, I.E.A.).

8. MARRIAGE CONTRACT :
A female under 18 years and a male under 21 years, cannot
contract marriage (Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1978).

9. INFANTICIDE :
The charge of infanticide cannot be supported, if the infant can be
proved under the age of seven months of intrauterine life.
 MLI OF AGE
10. CRIMINAL ABORTION :
A woman who has passed the child-bearing age cannot be charged
of procuring criminal abortion.

11. IMPOTENCE AND STERILITY :

A boy is sterile though not impotent before puberty.
Women become sterile after menopause.

12. MLI of age 17, 18, 21, 25, 35, 40-45, 62, 65 years.
 AGE OF THE FOETUS
Developing Ovum
The first seven to ten days after conception, i.e., until the
implantation occurs .

Embryo
From 1st week of gestation upto the time of fusion of decidua
vera with decidua reflexa, i. e., upto 8th week of gestation.

Foetus
From 8th week of gestation until delivery
 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES IN
FOETUS
AT THE END OF 1 MONTH
Length one cm; weight two and half g. The eyes are seen as two dark
spots, and the mouth as a cleft. Nucleated red cells begin to form in
placenta.

AT THE END OF 2nd MONTH

Length four cm; weight ten g. The hands and feet are webbed. The
placenta begins to form. The anus is seen as a dark spot. First ossification
centre in a foetus appears in clavicle (4 to 5 weeks), followed by maxilla
(6 weeks).

END OF THIRD MONTH :

Length nine cm; weight thirty g. The eyes are closed and the pupillary
membrane appears. Nails appear and the neck is formed
 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES IN
FOETUS
END OF FOURTH MONTH :
Length 16 cm; weight 120 g. Sex can be recognised. Lanugo ·hair is seen
on the body. Convolutions begin to develop in brain. Meconium is found
in the duodenum.

END OF FIFTH MONTH :

Length 25 cm; weight 400g. Nails are distinct and soft. Light hair
appears on
head. Skin is covered with vernix caseosa. Meconium is seen at the
beginning of the large intestine.

END OF SIXTH MONTH :

Length 30 cm; weight 700 g. Eyebrows and eyelashes appear. Vernix
caseosa is present. The testes are seen close to the kidneys.
 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES IN
FOETUS
END OF SEVENTH MONTH :
Length 35 cm; weight 900 to 1200 g. Nails are thick. Eyelids
open and pupillary membrane disappears. Skin is dusky-red,
thick and fibrous . Meconium is found in the entire large
intestine. Testes are found at external inguinal ring. Gallbladder
contains bile and caecum is seen in the right iliac fossa.
Ossification centre is present in the talus.

END OF EIGHTH MONTH :

Length 40 cm; weight one-and-half to two kg. Nails reach the
tips of fingers. Scalp hair is thicker, 1.5 cm. in length. Skin is not
wrinkled. Left testis is present in the scrotum. Placenta weighs
500 g.
 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES IN
FOETUS
END OF NINTH MONTH :
Length 45 cm; weight 2.2 to three kg. Scrotum is wrinkled and contains both
testes. Placenta weighs 500 g. Ossification centres are usually present in the
lower end of the femur.

END OF TENTH MONTH: (FULLTERM CHILD ):

Length48 to 52 cm weight 2.5 to 5 kg; average about 3.4 kg. Six fontanels are
usually present in the neonatal skull. At full term the head of a child is nearly
one-fourth of the whole length of the body. The surface of the brain shows
convolutions, The nails project beyond the end of fingers, The testes are
present in the scrotum. The umbilical cord is 50 to 55 cm. long, and one cm.
thick.
The centre of ossification is found in the lower end of femur and sometimes in
the cuboid and in the upper end of the tibia. The placenta is 22 cm. in
diameter, one and- half cm. thick at the centre, and weighs about 500 gm.
DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES IN
FOETUS

RULE OF HAASE (1895):

During the first five months of pregnancy the square root of

the length ( in cm. ) gives the approximate age of the foetus in
months, e.g. a foetus of 16 cm. is four months.

During the last five months, the length in cm. divided by five
gives the age in months, e.g., foetus of 35 cm. is 7 months.
 STATURE
 Stature varies at different times of the day by 1.5 to 2 cm. It is
less in the afternoon and evening due to the reduced elasticity of
the intervertebral discs and the longitudinal vertebral muscles.

 After the age of thirty, cause gradual decrease in stature by about

0.6 mm. per year on an average.

 The stature is greater by 1 to 3 cm. on lying.

 On an average, the body lengthens after death by about 2 cm.

 STATURE
If the body has been dismembered, the approximate stature may
be determined by:
1. The length from the tip of the middle finger to the tip of the
opposite middle finger, when arms are fully extended, closely
equals the height.

2. Twice the length of one arm, with 30 cm. added for two
clavicles, and four cm. for the sternum, is equal to the height.

3. The length of forearm measured from tip of olecranon

process to tip of the middle finger is equal to 5/19 of the
stature.
4. The length from the vertex to the symphysis pubis is roughly
half of stature.
 STATURE
5. The height of head measured by the vertical distance from the
top of the head to the tip of the chin is about one-seventh and the
length of skull is about one-eighth of the total height.

6. The length from the sternal notch to symphysis pubis

multiplied by 3.3 gives the stature.

7. The length of vertebral column is 35/100 of the height.

8.To the length of entire skeleton, add two-and-half cm. to four

cm. for the thickness of the soft parts.

9. Maximum foot length divided by 0.15 gives stature.

 ANTHROPOMETRY
 Also known as Bertillon system

 It is based on the principle that after the age of 21 years, the

dimensions of the skeleton remain unchanged and also that the
ratio in size of different parts to one another varies considerably
in different individuals.

 This system includes:

1. Descriptive data:
2. Body marks:
3. Body measurements:
4. The photographs
DACTYLOGRAPHY
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
 Also known as fingerprint system ; dermatoglyphics; Galton-
Henry system.

DEFINITION
 Fingerprints are impressions of patterns formed by the papillary
or epidermal ridges of the fingertips.

 This system was first used in India in 1858, by Sir William

Herschel in Bengal. Sir Francis Galton systematized this
method in 1892.

 Fingerprint Bureau was first established in Kolkata.

 DACTYLOGRAPHY
 The fingers, palms of the hands, soles of the feet of the humans
bear friction ridge skin. On the tip of fingers these friction ridge
skin forms a number of basic patterns.

 This ridges first develops in utero-from 12th to 16th weeks of

IUL& gets completed by the 24th wk. Of gestation and remain
constant for rest of the life.

 The arrangement and distribution of these ridges are unique to an

individual.
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
 CLASSIFICATION
1. Loop ( 60-70%)
a. Radial
b. Ulnar
2. Whorls (25-35%)
c. Concentric
d. Spiral
e. Double spiral
3. Arches (6-7%)
f. Plain
g. Tented
4. Composite (1-2%)-
a. central pocket, b. lat pocket, c. accidental etc
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
 The final identification of any fingerprint is made by comparison
of many details of characteristic but not by comparing the
patterns.

 The characteristics may take the form of

-ridge endings,
-bifurcations,
-lake formations, or
-island formations.

 In practice 16 to 20 points of fine comparison are accepted as

proof of identity.
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
THE INDIVIDUALITY OF FINGERPRINT –

1. Remains same throughout the life.

2. Capable of endless variation so that it has been speculated that there

is one chance in 64 billions of 2 persons having identical
fingerprints.

3. The pattern is different even in identical twins.

4. The fingerprint patterns are distinctive and permanent in individuals.

5. Very difficult to remove or alter.

 DACTYLOGRAPHY
POROSCOPY
 The ridges on fingers and hands are studded with microscopic
pores, formed by mouths of ducts of subepidermal sweat glands.

 Each millimetre of a ridge contains 9 to 18 pores. These pores

number in thousands per square centimetre.

 These pores are permanent and unchanged during life.

 This method of examining pores is called poroscopy, and is

useful when only fragments of fingerprints are available in which
there is no specific pattern.
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
MODE OF PRODUCTION

 A constant stream of sweat covers the skin and when the person
is excited, the output of sweat increases.

 The fingerprint may also contain oil exuded by the sebaceous

glands, which is present on the fingertips through touching the
face., neck, hair, scalp, etc.

 If any part of finger is applied to a smooth surface, a greasy

impression of its pattern is made on it.
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
Recording of Fingerprinting:

 The hands are washed, cleaned and dried, as otherwise the print
will be blurred.

 The fingerprints are recorded on unglazed white paper using

printer's ink.

1. Plain impression

2. Rolled impression
 In case of criminals impression of all the ten digits are taken.
 DACTYLOGRAPHY
 It is customary and conventional to take the left thumb
impression of male and rt. For the female in lieu of signature for
illiterate person and on legal and other documents.

 In case of dried up or shrivelled dead bodies at first the fingers

are made rounded out & smoothened by shoaking them into
KOH soln. Or by injecting glycerin, melted paraffin etc. Into the
fingers.

 In advanced putrified dead bodies the skin itself comes out like
gloves which can be preserved in 10%formalin for development
of fingerprints. It can also be obtained from dermis by
histopathological section upto a depth of 0.6mm
 Types of Evidentiary Fingerprints

1. PATENT PRINT- It needs no processing to be recognizable

as a fingerprint.

2. PLASTIC PRINT- It is a recognisable fingerprint

indentation in soft surface, such as butter, soap, cheese etc.

3. LATENT PRINT- It requires additional processing to be

rendered visible and suitable for comparison. This type of
processing is called development or enhancement.
 Development Of Latent Prints
FOR NON POROUS SURFACES:
1. Visual examination-
Oblique illumination may reveal it if the surface is smooth and clean.

2. Fluorescence examination-
High intensity light or argon-ion laser or UV light may reveal latent
fingerprints.

 DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES:
i. Vaccum metal deposition iii. Superglue fuming
ii. Fingerprints powders iv. Small particle reagent
V. Iodine fuming.
 Development Of Latent Prints
FOR POROUS SURFACES :
The reagents used for this surfaces react with amino acids, fats,
lipids or chlorides absorbed into the surface.

 visual examination is less likely to reveal the latent finger

prints on the porous surface.

 Fluorescence may sometimes reveals it by the rarely

observed fluorescence of naturally occurring components or
fluorescence of some contaminents.
 Development Of Latent Prints
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES:
I. DFO
II. Ninhydrin
III. Powders
IV. Super glue fuming
V. Physical developer

OTHERS:
Radioactive sulphur dioxide, sudan black, osmium
tetroxide, electronography, SEM Etc.
 FINGERPRINTS

There are three common techniques used to visualize latent

fingerprints:

a. Powders

b. Fuming

c. Dips or Sprays
 Powders
Most common identification method partly because they are cheap
and fast

Powders stick to the oily components of the print

Black and silver most common depending on background although

fluorescent and magnetic powders are fast becoming preferred

Must lift print with special tape or photograph

 FUMING
Iodine
• iodine undergoes sublimation (solid  gas)

• iodine is non-polar – dissolves in the oil of

fingerprints

Superglue/Cyanoacrylate
• cyanoacrylate dissolves in the oils of
the print to form very visible white
ridges
• very sensitive method
 Dips or Sprays
Ninhydrin

• intense purple good for light colored backgrounds

• sensitive to the amino acid or urea components of prints
(eccrine secretions)
• most widely used method for latent print detection from paper
 Dips or Sprays
Silver Nitrate
• the silver reacts with chloride (in sweat to form silver chloride
which then decays into silver producing a permanent black
stain in UV (ultraviolet) light
AgNO3 + Cl -  AgCl  Ag (in UV)

• good for wood products, paper products, leather, and many

metal surfaces (including ammunition and casings)

• silver nitrate is generally used as

a last resort technique
 Dips or Sprays
Crystal Violet
• also called gentian violet
• stains fatty acids and protein components of fingerprints
• purple solution is best for detecting latent prints on all types of tape (duct,
Scotch, masking, electrical, etc)
• permanent stain is dissolved in alcohol before use

Amido Black
• black protein dye best for blood-contaminated latent prints
• good for non-porous surfaces (metal, plastic, glass)
• corrosive – it will damage surfaces, collect samples of blood for typing or
DNA fingerprinting first
 Dips or Sprays
Fluorescent / Luminescent Chemicals
• fluorescent – reradiation of light; luminescent – produces light by chemical
means
• dyes adhere to fatty acids; most common are Rhodamine and Ardrox (both
fluorescent)
• extreme sensitivity
• must be viewed under alternate light source (black light, UV, laser)

before after
These techniques can be
used in combination…

Superglue fuming, fluorescent

powder, UV light, orange filter
 LIFTING OF FINGERPRINTS

 Fingerprints on a large immovable hard surface is

developed, photographed and then adhesive surface of
cellophane tape is pressed on the print, taken out
gently and pasted against a cardboard sheet for
permanent preservation.
 ADV. & DISADVANTAGE
 ADVANTAGES :

Surest data of identification

Remains unchanged throughout life (womb to tomb).

Collected from both living and dead.

Collected from bodies in advanced stages of decomposition.

 ADV. & DISADVANTAGE
No costly instruments are required.

Innumerable number of fingerprints can be systematically

preserved & made available as per need and can be send from
one country to other through teleprinters in coded form for
comparison

 DISADVANTAGES
It will be of no use when prints are not available for comparison.
 MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
 Identification of criminals whose fingerprints were found at
scene.

 Identification of fugitive through fingerprint comparison.

 Identification of unknown deceased person, persons suffering

from amnesia, missing & unconcious person.

 Identification in mass disaster.

 In cases of accidental exchange of newborns, identity is made

by this .
 For licensing procedure in firearm,aircrafts,automobile.
 MUTILATION OF FINGERPRINTS
 Criminals sometimes attempt to mutilate the pattern by self
inflicted wounds or burns, application of corrosives or erosion
against a hard surface.

 In most cases of coeliac disease, there is moderate epidermal

ridge atrophy and even loss of pattern.

 Ridge alteration occurs in eczema, acanthosis nigricans,

scleroderma, and dry or atrophic skin.

 Permanent impairment of the fingerprint pattern occurs in

leprosy, electric injury and after exposure to radiation
 PRESERVATION OF FINGERPRINTS
Computerised System – in this system prints of 8 fingers are
recorded. The light reflected from the fingerprints are
measured and converted into digital data & then classified,
codified & stored in the Computer.

FINDER-
Is a computarised automatic fingerprint reading system.

AFIS-
Is a storage, searching, retrieval & exchange system for
biometric data
 FOOTPRINTS
 The skin patterns of toes and heels are as distinct and permanent as
those of the fingers.

 Footprints of newborn infants are used in some maternity hospitals to

prevent exchange or substitution of infants.

 Any peculiarities in the foot, such as a flat foot, supernumerary toes,

scars or callosities are likely to be found in the footprint.

 A footprint produced by walking is usually larger than one produced by

standing.

 The imprint on soft and loose material like sand is smaller than the
foot, and the imprint produced on mud or clay is larger.
 PALATOPRINTS
 In the anterior part of the palate, the structural details like the
rugae are individual specific and permanent.

 The palatoprints can be used in the same way as fmgerprints

 LIPPRINTS
 Also known as Cheiloscopy.

 The fissures and grooves on the lips are claimed to be

characteristic of the individual.

 Lipprints are divided into six patterns which are specific to the
individual;
Type I : Long vertical,
Type II : Short vertical
Type III : Branched,
Type IV : Diamond shaped,
Type V : Reticular patterns,
Type VI : Non specific.
 EAR PRINTS
 Ears have four basic shapes: oval, round, rectangular and
triangular.

 Most of the ear prints are found on doors or windows .

 From the suspect three prints are taken (1) functional pressure,
(2) gentle pressure, (3) more pressure, on a glass pane.

 The print is made visible as in the case of fingerprints and a

photograph of the print is taken.
 NOSE PRINTS

 The lines on the nose and the shape of the tip are helpful in
identification.

 Chance impressions may be found over door, wall, etc.

IDENTIFICATION FROM

HAIR
STRUCTURE
 STRUCTURE
CUTICLE-
 It is the outermost layer of hair.

 It contains scales containing

keratin.

 Animal hair can have any type

of scales.

 Human hair have flat scales

which belong to TypeVII.
STRUCTURE

CORTEX
 forms bulk of the thickness.

 In human hair, pigments are

seen in peripheral cortex.

 Contains abundance of
keratin,

 gives rise to acrid smell while

burning.
STRUCTURE
MEDULLA
 It is the central core of Hair.

 It may be continuous,
Interrupted (absent for short
distance)

 Fragmented (Absent in longer

distance).
Medullary Index= Ratio of
diameter of medulla to that of
shaft.
 MLI OF HAIR
A. Concerning identification of a person:
1.Is the material hair or some other fibre?

2.If hair is it human or animal hair?

3.If of human being, then it’s, (a) race, (b) sex and (c) age.

4.Whether bleached or any dye has been used,

5.if hair bulb is present, then the blood group of the person
concerned.
 MLI OF HAIR
6. Occupation of the person concerned can be made
from the hair.

7. trace evidence can be detected from the hair, which

can help identification of the person concerned.

8. Is the hair identical with the hair of the victim or

the accused?
 MLI OF HAIR
[B] Concerning other medico legal
aspects:
1. To which part of the body did the hair belong?
2. Whether taken out forcibly or fallen off naturally?
3. To establish a relationship between an offence,
offender and the victim.
4. Cause of death.
5. Type of injury.
6. Type of weapon used.
 MLI OF HAIR
7. Detection of certain poisoning cases.
8. Singeing of hair has importance in death due to burn or fire-arm
injuries.
9. Time since death can be estimated from the length of facial hair in
male subjects, with habit of shaving.
10. Presence of trace evidence like presence of blood of a person
other than the victim, and semen are helpful in criminal
investigations.
11. Hair has a special medico-legal importance concerning
identification and other medico-legal aspects in that, hair resist
putrefaction or decomposition for a pretty long period which
makes it an extremely helpful tool in medico-legal
practices.
 Hair Or Some Other Fibre?

 Hair may very occasionally be confused with some

other fibre, vegetable origin like, cotton or jute fibres,
semi synthetic fibres like those manufactured from
cellulose or purely synthetic fibres like nylon,
polyvinyl or polyester fibres.

 Natural fibres can be known by naked eye and

microscopic examination. For synthetic fibres, to know
their exact nature, certain other tests are necessary.
 Description of fibres
a) COTTON FIBERS are flattened and twisted
Microscopically they have long tubular cells.

b) JUTE fibres are smooth fibres with irregular cell cavities.

c) SILK fibres are fine, long filaments having no cells in them.

d) SYNTHETIC FIBRES are non-cellular fibres of varying

thickness, elasticity, contractibility, density, solubility and
chemical composition.
 HUMAN hair or an ANIMAL hair?
Features Human hair Animal hair
Texture Fine & thin Coarse & thick
Root Bulb or ribbon shaped Brush shaped
Cuticle Scales are small, Scales are large,
flat(moritz type Polyhedral ,can be
VII),serrated ends. of any type
Cortex Thick,4-10 times Thin, rarely twice
broader than medulla broader than
medulla
Medulla Narrow, may be Broad &
interrupted or continuous.
fragmented.
MI <0.3 >0.5
 (A) RACE:-

Feature Caucasians Mongolians Negroes

Color Light brown Black or dark Black or dark
brown brown
Consistency Fine to medium Coarse Short,curly,fine
st
Shape(cross- oval Round Flat
section)
Shaft Slight diameter Constant Wide variation
diameter
Pigmentation Uniform Coarse granules Irregular
 SEX DETERMINATION FROM
HAIR
Determination of sex from hair is difficult.

Beard and moustache are specific for males.

Male hair is usually thicker and coarser and darker than

female hair.

Barr body is seen in 20-80% of females and 0-4% of males.

 AGE FROM HAIR

 Infant/Adult? – Lanugo hair fine, soft, non-pigmented, non-

medullated and cuticular scales are smooth edged.

Adult hair is coarse, pigmented, medullated, complex

cuticular pattern.

Roots of hair from children dissolve rapidly in caustic potash,

adult hair roots resist this treatment.

Gray hair appears at 40 yrs.

 AGE FROM HAIR
 The scalp hair appears in a foetus in 5th month and lanugo
hair on the body of the foetus appears in the 4th month.

 At birth, scalp hair is about 4-5 cm. in length and the lanugo
hair is distributed only on and around the shoulders.

 Pubic hair appears by 13th/14th year in girls and 14th/15th

year in boys.

 Axillary hair appears by 14-16th year in boys;

 AGE FROM HAIR

 Facial hair appears in boys between 16th -18th year, first

moustaches, followed by beards.

 With extreme variation, scalp hair starts greying by 40 years,

pubic hair greys above 50 years and body hair above 60 years,
usually.

 Baldness may appear in males by about 50 years.

 Bleached or any dye has been used?
 Bleached or dyed hair are dry, brittle ,lusterless and rough.

 Abrupt color change to a very light color indicates bleaching.

 Cuticle is normally colorless and transparent,if colored,indicates

dyeing.

 Curly appearance with constrictions in shaft indicates permanent

waving.

Fluorescent microscopy can differentiate between colored or

bleached hair.
 Hair And OCCUPATION

 Occupation of a person can be guessed form the hair if trace

elements can be detected from his hair by using neutron
activation analysis.

 In occupations, where the person is exposed to substance

like arsenic, the same may be detected in his hair.

 In aniline industries, the hair of the workers may have a

bluish tinge.

 Copper industry it may have greenish tinge.

 HAIR
BLOOD GROUP of the person from hair –

 If hair bulb is present then, the blood group of the person can be
determined
 by “absorption elution technique” or “mixed agglutination”
technique.

If any TRACE ELEMENT present –

 Trace elements if detected in hair will help identification of the person.

 Trace evidences like blood or semen may help to identify the assailant or
the rapist by grouping test of the blood or semen present
 MLI OF HAIR
Is The Hair Identical With The Hair Of The Victim Or The
Accused?

 Blood groups can be determined from single hair bulb.

 If some root structure is present DNA profiling can be done.

 Mitochondrial DNA can be tried if only shaft is available.

 If age ,sex, race or trace elements detected from the hair matches
with the person in question it helps in positive identification.
 MLI OF HAIR
Whether taken out forcibly or fallen off naturally –

 A hair taken out forcibly, will have a full roundish hair bulb covered
with a torn sheath.

 If the hair has been taken out forcibly, that indicates fight or
struggle.

 A hair fallen off naturally, will have no bulb and sheath at its root
end.
 MLI OF HAIR
To which BODY PART the hair belonged?

 This can be determined form the length, shape, texture and some
other features of the hair.

The body part to which the hair belonged, is important, to know,

whether it was a case of assault on the head or a case of sex assault
viz. rape or sodomy.
 MLI OF HAIR
Relationship between the OFFENCE, OFFENDER, VICTIM and
sometimes the OFFENDING WEAPON –

 If a female pubic hair is detected on the glans of the accused of a

case of rape or if a male pubic hair is available near the private parts
of the victim of a case of rape, then relationship between the
offence, offender and victim can be established by studying the
sample hair recovered from the male or female genitalia and the
pubic hair of the victim or the accused.

 Similar is the position in sodomy cases

 Mechanical assault. ( Hair in weapon )
 CAUSE OF DEATH

In death due to head injury, the hair of the affected part of the head may
be crushed or may show sharp cutting, depending on whether hard,
blunt or sharp cutting weapon was used.

 In death due to arsenic poisoning, the

poison may be detected in the hair.
 MLI OF HAIR
 Type of INJURY –
 In case of lacerated injury over head, the hair bulb is crushed. In case of
incised or stab wound, the hair is sharply cut.

 Type of WEAPON used –

 In case of head injury, if the hair bulbs are crushed then it can be said that
hard, blunt weapon has been used. If there is sharp cut on the hair, then a
sharp cutting weapon must have been used.

 NATURE of death –
 In homicidal cases the hair of the assailant may be held in tight grip of
the hand of the victim in a state of cadaveric spasm, as a result of
struggle before death.
 MLI OF HAIR
SINGEING of hair –

• In burning cases the hair get singed.

• Singeing of hair, of course, does not specifically indicate

ante-mortem or postmortem nature of the burning.

• It is a point to differentiate between ulcers due to burn,

scald or chemical agent.

• In fire-arm injury cases, singeing of the hair around the

wound indicates about the short distance of the firing.
 MLI OF HAIR
 Estimation of TIME OF DEATH –

 In case of death of a male subject, if the date and hour of his last
shave is known (e.g. from the fixed barber), then from the length of
the beards and moustaches, or beards alone, it can be said, for what
period the deceased survived after his last shave. This gives the time
of death.

 (Rate of growth:2.5mm/week or 0.4mm/day)

Identificatio
n
From Scars
 Scar: what is it?

Scar or cicatrix is fibrous tissue covered by epithelium,

devoid of hair follicle, pigment and sweat glands, formed as a
result of healing of wound.

Scar is formed if injury is at dermis or below.

More superficial wounds heal without scar formation

 EXAMINATION OF SCAR
 Scar must be examined in good lighting.
 Description should include
i. Number,
ii. Site,
iii. Size,
iv. Shape,
v. Its Particular Location,
vi. Fixed Or Free,
vii. Smoothness Or Irregularity of Surface,
viii. Color, And
ix. Presence /Absence Of Glistening, and
x. Tenderness.
 EXAMINATION OF SCAR

 The condition of the ends(tapering or not), and probable

direction of the original wound can be determined.

 The application of Heat or filtered UV radiation, surfac

friction makes faint scars readily visible.

 Suspected scar in a dead body can be proved by microscopy

by looking for elastic tissue which is absent in a scar.
 CHARACTER OF SCAR

 Scar usually assumes shape of the wound causing

it.

 Scar from an incised wound is usually linear and

straight. But in axilla or in genitals it may be irregular
due to loose skin.

 Lacerated wound result in broad or irregular scar.

 CHARACTER OF SCAR

 Suppurated wound also result in broad or irregular scar which

are attached to deeper tissues.

 In case of a stab wound, scar may be oval, elliptical or

irregular depending on the blade of the weapon.

 Large irregular scar followed by

keloid formation often result from burn
or scald.
CHARACTER OF SCAR
 Scar from bullet wound is usually
irregular, depressed or adherent to
deeper tissues.

 Vaccination scars are circular or

oval, flat or slightly depressed.
CHARACTER OF SCAR

 Old scar from wrist slashing

indicated failed attempt at
Suicide.

 Scar at cubital fossa or dorsum

of hand indicates drug addiction.
 Age of scar
Features Duration
Reddish/bluish 5-6 days
Pale, soft and 2 weeks-2 months
Angry looking scar
sensitive(tender)

Tough, brownish, 2-6 months

glistening, wrinkled
and little tender

Tough white, glistening >6 months

and non-tender
 SCAR : MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE
1) Identification of the individual.

2) Shape of scar may indicate nature of weapon or agent causing it.

3) Age of scar may indicate time of injury which may have value as
circumstantial evidence.

4) Scar causing permanent disfigurement of face or head amount to

GRIEVOUS HURT.

5) Scar causing contracture around a joint restricting its functions

amount to GRIEVOUS HURT.
 SCAR : MEDICO-LEGAL
IMPORTANCE
6. Scar over cornea amounts to GRIEVOUS HURT by causing
loss of vision.

7. Striae gravidarum may indicate past or present pregnancy.

8. Old scar from wrist slashing indicated failed attempt at suicide.

9. Scar at cubital fossa or dorsum of hand indicates drug

addiction.