Day 1 - Part II - 18EPG304 Research Methodology 2.0 - DSU - RVMREDDY

Presentation
Day 1 – Part II
Research Methodology
Center for Executive Education
Dayananda Sagar University
Innovation Campus
Hosur Main Road
Bangalore - 560 068
Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 1
R. Venkatamuni Reddy
Professor
Department of Commerce
Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE)
Manipal
Karnataka – 576 104
Contact: 09686416733
rvmunireddy@gmail.com

Presentation Outline – Day 1
 Introduction to Research
 Social Science and Business Research
 Terminologies:
– Qualitative, quantitative research, Theory building,
Introduction to Data and Analysis,
– Primary and secondary data, Explorative, descriptive
and Causal analysis, Business research Process,
observational studies and designed experiments,
Introduction to Random variables, distributions and
sampling
– Introduction to R, Vector, matrices, R studio and hands on
exercises in the class.
 Self Study : Venkatamuni
Dr. R. Ethics Reddy-Professor-Research
in Research Methodology 3
Presentation Outline – Day 1
Art of learning from data – Data analysis I
Sources of Data Collection
Sampling Strategies
Details on Exploratory, Descriptive and Causal Research
Graphs and Numerical Summaries

Research Design
The research design is the master plan
specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed
information
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how ,

how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry of research study constitute a research
design

Contd…
 The plan and structure of enquiry, formulated in
order to obtain answers to research questions on
business aspects
 The planning process includes the frame-work
of the entire research process, starting from

developing the hypothesis to the final evaluation
of collected data
 Business Research Design helps researchers to
utilize available resources efficiently to achieve

research objectives
In brief, research design must, at least,
contain
1. A clear statement of the research problem
2. Procedures and techniques to be used for

gathering information
3. The population to be studied
4. Methods to be used in processing and

analyzing the data

Need for the Research Design
 A good research design will clearly
described the techniques to be used for
selecting samples, collecting data,
managing costs and other aspects that are
essential for conducting business research
 Good design means good results,

minimization of cost, maximum utilization
to time, effort, and manpower

Characteristics of a Good Research Design
 Good Research Design are:
 Flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being

economy, minimize bias, maximize accuracy of
the data, few errors as possible and adequate
information.
 Identifying the exact research problem to be
studied
 The objective of the research and process of
obtaining information
 The availability of adequate and skilled
manpower and availability of adequate financial
resourcesDr. for carrying out research.
R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 9
Research Design Concepts
1) Dependent and Independent variables:-
 Different Quantitative values like weight,
height, age and so on. Quantitative values

can be classified as continuous (Decimal:
Age, weight, height, distance) and non
continuous variables (No Decimal: No. of
Family Member, No. of Students)
 Age is dependent variable, height, weight
are independent variable.

Research Design Concepts
Extraneous variable: Extraneous variables
are independent variables that are not directly
linked with the study. But may influence the
dependent variable ex. Assume that a
hypothesis was framed which stated a
relationship between children's going in
academic achievement and their Self concept
existed.
Academic Achievement is Dependent
Self concept is Independent
Apart from self concept, intelligence may
also affect academic achievements. But
intelligence is not related to the study’s
purpose or objectives
Intelligence is an extraneous variable
Any effect on the dependent variable from
the extraneous variable, it is called an

‘experimental error’

Control: Control is essentially devised to minimize the
effects of extraneous variable.
Confounded relationship: When a dependent variable
is affected by the influence of a extraneous variable,

then the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is confused or confounded by an
extraneous variable
Research Hypothesis: If a hypothesized relationship
or prediction has to be tested by scientific methods, it is

called research hypothesis.
A Research hypothesis is one that links an
independent variable to a dependent variable

Examples of Research Design
 Research Questions (Example)
 Q1: How do organisational structure,
relational norms and project risk impact
preferences for communication frequency,
contents and media of project sponsors and
managers in implementation of IT projects?
 Q2: How effective is the formal
communication between project sponsors and
project managers during IT project
implementation?
 Research Hypotheses (Example)
 H1: There will be a significant difference between

communication preferences of project sponsors
from buyer firms and those of project managers
from IT seller firms in terms of preferred
communication frequency, contents and media.
 H2:There will be a positive relationship between
the extent of organic organisation structure and
communication frequency. The more organic the
organisation, the higher the frequency in
communication.

 H3:There will be a negative relationship between the
level of organic organization structure and the use of
lean media. Bureaucratic organization structures will
favour written reports, while organic structures favour
more interactive media like verbal communication or
face-to-face meetings.
 H4: There will be a negative relationship between the
extent of organic organization structure and the use of
quantitative measures, like quality metrics and earned
value numbers. Bureaucratic structures will favour
quantitative data.
 H5: There will be a positive relationship
between project goal equivocality and media

richness; rich media (e.g. face-to-face meetings)
will be selected for communications in projects
with unclear goals, and lean media (i.e. written
communication) in projects with clearly defined
goals.
 H6: There will be a positive relationship
between clearness of methodology and the use

of written media for communications.
Main Research Design
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research
Uses 1. Formulate problem 1. Describe characteristics of 1. Provide evidence
more precisely certain groups regarding the causal
relationship between
variable means of:
2. Develop hypothesis 2. Estimate proportion of * Concomitant
people in a population who variation
behave in a certain way *Time older in which
3. Make specific predictions variables occur
* Elimination of
3. Establish priorities possible explanations
4. Estimate Impractical
ideas
5. Clarity concepts
Types •Literature Search •Longitudinal Study *Laboratory
•Experience survey True panel experiment
•Focus groups Omnibus panel * Field experiment
•Analyzing of selected
cases * Sample survey

Basic Research Objectives and Research
Design
Research Objective Appropriate Design
To gain background information, to define terms, to clarify Exploratory

problems and develop hypotheses, to establish
research priorities, to develop questions to be
answered
To describe and measure marketing phenomena at a point Descriptive

in time
To determine causality, test hypotheses, to make “if-then” Causal

statements, to answer questions

Problem Formulation

Introduction
 In Music we begin with ‘sa’ ‘re’ ‘ga’

or ‘do’ ‘re’ ‘me’
 In learning to read, you begin with a b c
These are building blocks in music and reading
Similarly in “research” we begin with Problem

formulation
Introduction
One of the most difficult aspect of research is
 How to develop the idea for the research
topic in the first place

 The faculty may suggest: if you read
enough of the research in the are of interest

 If we turn some of our expertise in
developing methods into methods that

student and researcher can use to help them
formulate ideas for research

Introduction
Problem Formulation: "Well begun is half

done" --Aristotle, quoting an old proverb

Introduction
Where do research topics come from?
 Most common sources of research ideas is the
experience of practical problems in the field

 Many of the ideas would strike the outsider as
silly or worse
 Another source for research ideas is the
literature in your specific field

 The ideas you come up with on your own are
influenced by your background, culture,

education and experiences.
Introduction
 Is the study feasible?
 you get an idea for a study reality begins to
kick in and you begin to think about whether
the study is feasible at all
 Many of these involve making tradeoffs
between rigor and practicality.
 If you had unlimited resources and unbridled
control over the circumstances, you would
always be able to do the best quality research

Introduction
 Is the study feasible?
 First, you have to think about how long the
research will take to accomplish.
 Second, you have to question whether there are
important ethical constraints that need
consideration.
 Third, can you achieve the needed cooperation to
take the project to its successful conclusion? And
 Fourth, how significant are the costs of
conducting the research. Failure to consider any of
these factors can mean disaster later.
Introduction
 The Literature Review is one of the important
factor to choose our research topic. Why?
 First, you might be able to find a study that is quite
similar to the one you are thinking of doing
 Second, prior research will help assure that you include
all of the major relevant constructs in your study
 Third, the literature review will help you to find and
select appropriate measurement instruments
 Finally, the literature review will help you to anticipate
common problems in your research context
You can use the prior experiences of other to avoid
common traps and pitfalls.
Introduction
Concept Mapping - Research formulation might be:
 Brainstorming
 Brainwriting
 Nominal Group Technique
 Focus Groups
 Delphi Methods
 Facet theory
all of the methods for identifying relevant literature

and previous research work.
 If you know of any techniques or methods that you
think might be useful when formulating the research

problem, please feel free to add a notation
Introduction
 What is concept mapping ?
 It is a structured process, focused on a topic or
construct of interest, involving input from one or
more participants, that produces an interpretable
pictorial view (concept map) of their ideas and
concepts and how these are interrelated.
 It helps people to think more effectively as a
group without losing their individuality. It helps
groups to manage the complexity of their ideas
without trivializing them or losing detail.

Introduction
 Concept mapping six steps process ?
1) Preparation
2) Generation
3) Structuring
4) Representation
5) Interpretation
6) Utilization

Introduction
Before you start your research you need to have
at least some idea of what you want to do
 It explain with how to formulate and clarify
research topic and research question

 Formulating and clarifying the research topic is
the starting point of research

 Once you are clear this you will be able to do
good research
 “The More Effort you Put into this Step in
Research, the More Productive your Work will

be” Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 31
Major Steps in Problem Formulation
 Identifying the Probable Issues

 Selecting the specific Issues
 Formulating the Objective
 Clarifying the Objectives

Identify the Research Problem Areas
Example:
 The Housing Problem in a Metropolitan
City
 Family Planning and Govt Policy
 Marriage Practices in Different
Communities
 Women and Empowerment

Identify the Research Problem Areas
 when Some one asked the reason for selecting this
problem area?
 We can offer one or more of the following as having
influenced our interest in the field of selected for study
a) A general curiosity about the problem
b) The emphasis on the learning process
c) Related to Practical Problem
d) Related to a wide population
e) Fills a research gap
f) The time within which the study must be completed
g) Permits generation to broader principles of social
interactionDr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 34
Selecting the specific Research Problem Area
Identified Women and Employment

 Specific Components
 1) Extent and Incidence of women’s employment in
terms of who works and who does not work, what
work women do, where they work
 2) The reasons why women work and do not work
 3) View of different segments of society regarding
women taking up employment
 4) Consequences of women employment
(Consequences could be further sub classified in to ,
economic, social, family, health and so on)

 More component
 Role changes in the family results from
women's employment
 Study of effects on upbringing of working
mothers children's
 Study of problems of working women with
particular reference to their family
obligations

Formulating the objective
 Part I (Objective)
 To estimate the proportion of the population which
is of the view that women should work
 To estimate the relationship between selected
characteristics of respondents and their views on
the issue
 Part II (We want to find out)
 How many are of the view that women should
work and how many are against this view?
 What kind of people support the view point that
women should work and what kind take the
oppositeDr.view?
R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 38
Clarifying the objective
 To identify , select and list the specific information in order to
fulfill the objective of the study
 List Important variables and Select important Variables
• Marital Status
• History of working women
• Rural and urban background
• Occupation
• Sex
• Education
• Income
• Family Size
• Age
• Family composition
• Should women work Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology
Dr. R. Venkatamuni 39
Variables
 Quantitative Variable
(It can be manipulated according to the rules of
mathematics): Age( Should we take 1,2,3,4,…..99 or
18,19,20,……..99)
 Graded Variable: Good, Better, best, poor, average,
good, and so on
 Independent is quit self exploratory
Example: sex is a independent variable because its
values (Male/Female) are not dependent on any other
variables. Similarly Age or Education or Occupation
 Independent and dependent , gives us a very important
clue to their meaning and purpose
Variables
 More Concretely, the sex of a person cannot be
determined by , of be dependent on or influenced
by or be the result of, or an effect of any other
characteristics of that person.
 Hence we say that sex is an independent variable
similarly age is also an independent variable
 Reverse of the above would be the dependent
variable
 Example: men will earn more than women
 Sex of the persons influenced their earnings

Problem formulation Example II
 Housing Situation: The topic that are
recommended include the following
 The slums in the metropolis: some facts and
related solutions
 Housing differentials of low income group in a
city
 Rents and subsidies for low income group
 The rent act and housing production
 Housing situation in a metropolis
 Monetary and fiscal policies and investments in
housing
 Selecting the specific research issue
Housing situations in a metropolis
 Formulating the objectives
We developed three objectives

Part I: To Find out
 The number and types of dwelling in the spectrum
from hut to bungalow

 The related facilities and amenities existing and
preferred
 Characteristics differentiating households on these
components
 Part II: To Ascertain
 The current rent paid by tenants for their
dwellings and their capacities to pay rent as
measured by realistic housing needs
identified the households themselves
 Characteristics differentiating households
on these components

 Clarifying the objectives
Key terms in the objectives with list of

variables
 I – Existing Dwellings
 A) Type of Dwelling
 B) Number of Dwelling
 C) Number of Rooms
 D) Facilities
 E) Tenancy Status
 F) Rent Paid
Dr. R. forReddy-Professor-Research
Venkatamuni Month Methodology 45
 Clarifying the objectives
 II– Preferred Dwellings
A) Type
B) Number of Rooms
C) Facilities
D) Tenancy Status
E) Rent Payable
 II– Characteristics of Households
A) Socio economic Status

B) Household Size
C) Place of Origin
D) Period ofVenkatamuni
Dr. R. stay inReddy-Professor-Research
Metropolis Methodology 46
Checklist of attributes of a good research topic
 Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the
standards set by the examining institution?
 Is the topic something with which you are really
fascinated?
 Does your research topic contain issues that have a clear
link to theory?
 Do you have, or can you develop within the project time
frame, the necessary research skills to undertake the
topic?
 Is the research topic achievable within the available time?
 Is the research topic achievable within the financial
resources that are likely to be available?

Checklist of attributes of a good research topic
 Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain
access to data you are likely to require for this topic?
 Are you able to state your research question (s) and
objectives clearly?
 Will your proposed research be able to provide fresh
insights into this topic?
 Does your research topic relate clearly to the idea you
have been given(perhaps by an organization)?
 Are the findings for this research topic likely to be
symmetrical: that is, of similar value
 Whatever the outcome?
 Does the research topic match your career goals?

More frequently used techniques for
generating and refining research ideas
Rational thinking Creative thinking

Examining your own strengths Keeping a notebook o
And interests Exploring personal pre
Looking at past project titles using past projects
Discussion Relevance trees
Searching the literature Brainstorming

Examples of Research Ideas –Derived Questions
Research idea General focus research question
Job recruitment via the Internet How effective is recruiting for
new staff via the Internet in
comparison with traditional
methods?
Advertising and share prices How does the running of a TV
advertising campaign designed to
boost the image of a company
affect its share price?
The use of aromas as a marketing In what ways does the use of
device specific aromas in supermarkets
affect buyer behaviour?
The future of trade unions What are the strategies that trade
unions should adopt to ensure
their future viability?
Phrasing research questions as research objectives
Research question Research objective
1 )Why have organizations introduced team 1 )To identify organizations' objectives for
briefing? team briefing schemes.
2 )How can the effectiveness of team 2) To establish suitable effectiveness

briefing schemes be measured? criteria for team briefing schemes.
3 )Has team briefing been effective? 3 ) To describe the extent to which the
effectiveness criteria for team briefing have
been met.
4) How can the effectiveness of team 4(a) To determine the factors associated
briefing be explained? with the effectiveness criteria for team
briefing being met.
b )To estimate whether some of those
factors are more influential than other
factors.
5 )Can the explanation be generalised? 5 )To develop an explanatory theory that
associates certain factors with the
effectiveness ofMethodology
Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research team briefing schemes.51
Sampling Design
Topics to be Covered
 Introduction
 The Need to Sample
 Types of Samples
 Calculation of the Sample

Introduction
 Definition 1: Sampling mean saving time and
money by examining a sample instead of the whole
sample
 Definition 2: To collect Information from a portion
of the population by taking a sample of elements
from the larger group, and , on the basis, infer
something about the larger group.
 Example: election poll, on the basis of small
fraction of all voters, to infer something of the
voting intentions for all potential voters
 Reasons for taking a Sample: The Cost and Time
Introduction
 If you collect and analyses the data for every possible
case or group members this is termed as census
 Sampling techniques provide a range of methods that
enable you to reduce the amount of data you need to
collect by considering only data from a sub group rather
than all possible cases or elements
 Population refers not only to people, but also to firms,
product and so on
 The need to Sample
 Some research questions it is possible to survey on entire
population as it is of a manageable size
 Sample provides a valid alternative to a census
Introduction
 The following situation sampling is required
 It would be impracticable for you to survey the entire population
 Your budget constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population
 Your time constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population
 You have collected all the data but need the results quickly
 Finally
 What should be the sample size?/What is the appropriate procedure that
you must follow in order to get a representative sample of
 All units in the total population of the study (i.e.) take a census survey/ A
section of units which would be representative of the universe (i.e.) do a
sample survey

What should be the sample size of your survey?
The size is determined after considering a
number of factors
 Representative of the universe
 Provides for efficient handling
 Degree of flexibility
 An eye on the reliability of the results
 Reduce expenses
 The time and payment available

Steps in Sampling Design
 What is the relevant population?
 What are the parameters of interest?
 What is the sampling frame?
 What is the type of sample?
 What size sample is needed?
 How much will it cost?

An overview of Sampling Technique
The sampling techniques can be divided into two types
 Probability or Representative Sampling
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
 Non-probability or Judgmental sampling
There are four types of sampling

 Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
 Self Selection Sampling
 Convenience Sampling

Probability or Representative Sampling
 With probability samples the chance, or probability
of each case being selected from the population is
known and is usually equal for all cases
 It is possible to answer research questions and to
achieve objectives that require you to estimate
statistically the characteristics of the population
from the sample.
 It is associated with survey and to a lesser extent
experiment research.

 It is commonly associated with survey-based research
 To make inference from your sample about a
population to answer your research question (s) or to

meet your objectives.
The probability sampling can be divided in to four stages
 Identify a suitable sampling frame based on your
research question (s) or objectives

 Decide on a suitable sample size
 Select the most appropriate sampling technique and
select the sample

 Check that the sample is representative of the
populationDr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 60
Identifying a suitable sampling frame
 Any probability sample is a complete list of all
the cases in the population from which your

sample will be drawn.
 If your research question or objective is
concerned with registered nursing homes in a

local area. Your sampling frame will be a
complete list of all registered nursing homes in
that area.

Selecting a Sampling Frame
 Are cases listed in the sampling frame relevant to
your research topic for Ex: are they current?

 Does the sampling frame include all cases in
other words is it complete?

 Does the sampling frame exclude irrelevant
cases, in other words is it precise?

 Can you establish and control precisely how the
sample will be selected



Deciding on suitable sample size
 The larger your sample’s size the lower the likely error
in generalising to the population.
 Probability sampling is a compromise between the
accuracy of your findings and the amount of time and

money you invest in collecting, checking and analysing
the data
Choice of sample size is governed by
 The confidence you need to have in your data
 The margin of error that you can tolerate
 The type of analyses you are going to undertake
 The size of the total population from which your sample

is being drawn
 The high response rate is important

Causes of non-response is due to four inter
related problems
 Refusal to Respond
 Ineligibility to Respond
 Inability to Locate Respondent
 Respondent Located but unable to make
Contact

Graphical illustration of Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling

Select five random numbers from 1 to
25. The resulting sample consists of
A B C D E population elements 3, 7, 9, 16, and
1 6 11 16 21
24. Note that there is no element from
Group C.
2 7 12 17 22
3 8 13 18 23
4 9 14 19 24
5 10 15 20 25
2. Systematic Sampling
Select a random number between 1 to
A B C D E 5, say 2. The resulting sample consists
1 6 11 16 21 of population 2, (2 + 5 =)7, (2 + 5 x
2 7 12 17 22 2=)12, (2 + 5 x 3=)17, and (2 + 5 x
3 8 13 18 23 4=)22. Note that all the elements are
4 9 14 19 24 selected from a single row.
5 10 15 20 25
Graphical illustration of Probability Sampling Techniques
3. Stratified Sampling
Randomly select a number from 1 to 5
A B C D E
from each stratum, A to E. The
1 6 11 16 21 resulting sample consists of population
2 7 12 17 22
elements 4, 7, 13, 19, and 21. Note that
3 8 13 18 23
one element is selected from each
4 9 14 19 24 column.
5 10 15 20 25
4. Cluster Sampling
Randomly select three clusters, B,D,
A B C D E and E. Within each cluster, randomly
1 6 11 16 21 select one or two elements. The
2 7 12 17 22 resulting sample consists of population
3 8 13 18 23 elements 7, 18, 20, 21, and 23. Note
4 9 14 19 24 that no elements are selected from
5 10 15 20 25 clusters A and C.
Simple Random Sampling
1. Select a suitable sampling frame
2. Assign each element a number from 1 to N (population size).
3. Generate n (sample size) different random numbers between 1
and N. This can be done using a microcomputer or mainframe
software package or using a table of simple random numbers
(Table 1 in the Appendix of Statistical Tables). To use Table 1,
select the appropriate number of digits (e.g. if N= 900, select
three digits). Arbitrarily select a beginning number. Then
proceed either up or down until n different numbers between 1
and N have been selected. Note: discard 0, duplicate numbers,
and numbers greater than N.
4. The numbers generated denote the elements that should be
included in the sample.
Systematic Sampling
1. Select a suitable sampling frame.
2. Assign each element a number from 1 to N (population
size).
3. Determine the sampling interval, i, i = N/n . If i is a
fraction, round to the nearest integer.
4. Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as
explained in simple random sampling.
5. The elements with the following numbers will
comprise the systematic random sample:
r, r + i, r + 2i, r + 3i, r + 4i, ……..r + (n – 1)i.
Stratified sampling
1. Select a suitable sampling frame
2. Select the stratification variable(s) and the number of strata
(H).
3. Divide the entire population into H strata. Based on the
classification variable, assign each element of the population
to one of the H strata.
4. In each stratum, number of the elements from 1 to Nh ( the
population size of stratum h).
5. Determine the sample size of each stratum, nh, based on
proportionate or disproportionate stratified sampling. Note:
6. In each stratum, select a random sample of size nh.

Cluster Sampling
We describe the procedure for selecting a simple two-stage
sample, because this represents the simpler case
1. Assign a number, from 1 to N, to each element in the
population.
2. Divide the population into C cluster, of which c will be
included in the sample.
3. Calculate the sampling interval, i, i = N/c . If i is a
fraction, round to the nearest integer.
4. Select a random number, r, between 1 and i, as explained in
simple random sampling.
5. Identify elements with the following numbers: r, r + i, r +
2i, r + 3i,…..r + (c + 1)i.
6. Select the clusters that contain the identified elements.

Cluster Sampling
7) Select sampling units within each selected cluster based on SRS or systematic
sampling. The number of sampling units selected from each sample cluster is
approximately the same and equal to N/c .
8) If the population of a cluster exceeds the sampling interval i, that cluster is
selected with certainty. That cluster is removed from further consideration.
Calculate the new population size, N*, number of clusters to be selected, c*
(= c -1), and the new sampling interval, i*. Repeat this process until each of
the remaining clusters has a population less than the relevant sampling
interval. If b clusters have been selected with certainty, select the remaining
c – b clusters according to step 1 through 7. The fraction of units to be
sampled from each cluster selected with certainty is overall sampling fraction
= n/N. Thus, for clusters selected with certainty we would select n s = (N1
+ N2 +…….+Nb) units. The units selected from clusters selected under two-
stage sampling will therefore be n* = n – ns.

Non-probability or Judgmental sampling

 The probability of each case being selected from the
total population is not known and it is impossible to
answer research questions or to address objectives that
require you to make statistical influence about the
characteristic of the population.
 This reason probability sampling is more frequently used
for case study research.
 Non Probability sampling provides a range of alternative
techniques based on your subjective judgment
 Your research question(s), objectives and choice of
research strategy may dictate non probability sampling

Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling is entirely non random and is
normally used for interview surveys
To select quota sample you
 Divide the population in to specific groups
 Calculate a quota for each group based on relevant and
available data
 Give each interviewer an assignment, which states the
number of cases in each quota from which they must

collect data
 Combine the data collected by interviewers to provide
the full sample

 Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling is normally used for large

populations
 This normally necessitates a sample size between
2000 to 5000
 The choice of quota depends on two main
factors
 Usefulness as means of stratifying the data
 Availability to overcome likely variations between
groups in their availability for interview

 Quota Sampling
Example: The national census of population

contains a breakdown of the number of people in
employment by gender, age and socioeconomic
status. These form the basis of the categories for
your quota
Gender: Male , Female
Age Group: 20-29, 30-34, 45-64
Socio Economic Status: Professional managers,
Employers Intermediate, Skilled Worker, Semi
Skilled worker
Quota Sampling at 5% for each group
Gender Age Group Socio Population Quota
Economic
Male 20-29 Professional 1121 56

managers
Employers 798 40
Intermediate
30-44 Professional 910 43

managers
Female 20-29 Professional 881 44

managers
Total 10000 500

 Snowball Sampling
Commonly used when difficult to identify members

of the desired population
Example: People who working while claiming
unemployment benefits.
Therefore need to be check
 Make contact with one or two cases in the population
 Ask these cases to identify further cases
 Ask these new cases to identify further new
cases(and so on )
 Stop when either no new cases are given

 Self-Selection Sampling
 Occurs when you allow a case usually an individual

to identify their desire to take part in the research.
You therefore
 Publicise your need for cases either by advertising
through appropriate media or by asking them to take
part.
 Collect data from those who respond.
 Convenience Sampling
 The units that we find convenient for some reason
are selected. We could for instance interview the
chief business executives we happen to known
personally.
Graphical illustration of Non probability Sampling Techniques
1. Convenience Sampling Group D happens to assemble at a
A B C D E
convenient time and place. So all the
elements in this group are selected.
1 6 11 16 21
The resulting sample consists of
2 7 12 17 22 elements 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20. Note
3 8 13 18 23 that no elements are selected from
4 9 14 19 24 groups A,B, C, and E.
5 10 15 20 25
2. Self Selection Sampling

The researcher considers groups B, C,
and E to be typical and convenient.
A B C D E
Within each of these groups one or
1 6 11 16 21
two elements are selected based on
2 7 12 17 22
typicality and convenience. The
3 8 13 18 23
resulting sample consists of elements
4 9 14 19 24
8, 10, 11, 13, and 24. Note that no
5 10 15 20 25
elements are selected from groups A
and D
Graphical illustration of Non probability Sampling Techniques
3. Quota Sampling
A quota of one element from each
A B C D E group, A to E, is imposed. Within each
1 6 11 16 21
group, one element is selected based on
judgment or convenience. The
2 7 12 17 22 resulting sample consists of elements
3 8 13 18 23 3, 6, 13, 20, and 22. Note that one
4 9 14 19 24
element is selected from each column
5 10 15 20 25
or group
4. Snowball Sampling
Random Elements 2 and 9 are selected
randomly from groups A and B.
A B C D E
Element 2 refers elements 12 and 13.
1 6 11 16 21
Element 9 refers element 18. The
2 7 12 17 22
resulting sample consists of elements 2,
3 8 13 18 23
9, 12, 13, and 18. Note that no element
4 9 14 19 24
is selected from group E.
5 10 15 20 25
Summary of Probability and Non Probability sampling
Strengths and Weaknesses of Basic Sampling Techniques
TECHNIQUE STRENGTHS WEAKNESS
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience sampling Least expensive, least time consuming, most Selection bias, sample not representative, not
convenient recommended for descriptive or causal research
Self Selection sampling Low cost, convenient, not time consuming Does not allow generalization, subjective
Quota sampling Sample can be controlled for certain Selection bias, no assurance of representativeness
characteristics
Snowball sampling Can estimate rare characteristics Time consuming
Probability Sampling
Simple random Easily understood, results projectable Difficult to construct sampling frame, expensive, lower
Sampling (SRS) precision, no assurance of representativeness
Systematic sampling Can increase representativeness, easier to Can decrease representativeness

implement than SRS, sampling frame not
necessary
Stratified sampling Includes all important subpopulations, Difficult to select relevant stratification variables, not
precision feasible to stratify on many variables, expensive
Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost effective Imprecise, difficult to compute and interpret results.

Calculations
Calculations of Total and actual response

rates.
 Total response rate = Total number of
responses/(Total number in Sample –

ineligible)
 Active response rates = Total number of
responses/(Total number in Sample –

(ineligible + unreachable))

Calculations
Estimating response rates and actual sample
size required
Once you have an estimate of the likely response
rate and the minimum of the adjusted minimum
sample size, the actual sample size you required
can be calculated using the following formula.
na = n*100/(re%)
 na is the actual sample size required
 n is the minimum (or adjusted minimum) sample size
 re% is the estimated response rate expressed as a
percentage
Calculations
 The technical procedure in this procedure,
the sample size is determined by the
following statistical formula:-
 N = T* (1-T)/SEp2
 Where N is the sample size
 T is the estimated population of a
characteristic in the population
 SEp is the Standard error permitted in a
sample
Calculations
 Example are : T = 0.5 and Sep = 0.05
Then N = (0.5* (1-0.5))/(0.05 x0.05)
= (0.5 x 0.5)/(0.05 x 0.05) = 100
 If T = 0.5 and Sep = 0.01
Then N = (0.5 x (1 – 0.5))/(0.01 x 0.01)

= (0.5 x 0.5 / 0.01 x 0.01) = 2500
 In the example (1) N = 100, in (2) N = 2500.
The difference is because of the difference in

the permitted level of error viz., 5% verify 1%
percent.
Calculations
 By Using rule-of-thumb
 Ex. 2) Housing situation
Socio Economic status ( Three groups)

Resent type of dwelling ( four groups)
Referred type of dwelling ( four types)
3 x 4 x 4 = 48 x 20 = 960 + 20% = 1152
1200

Sample sizes for different sizes of population at a 95 % cent level of certainty
(assuming data are collected from all cases in the sample)
Margin of error
Population 5% 3% 2% 1%
50 44 48 49 50
100 79 91 96 99
.
150 108 132 141 148
200 132 168 185 196
250 151 203 226 244
300 168 234 267 291

400 196 291 434 384
500 217 340 414 475

750 254 440 571 696
1000 278 516 706 906
2000 322 696 1091 1655
5000 357 879 1622 3288
10000 370 964 1936 4899
100000 383 1056 2345 8762
1000000 384 1066 2395 9513
10000000 384 1067 2400 9595
Determine the Sample Size
SAMPLE SIZE: The number of elements to be included in a study.
Sample size refers to the number of elements to be included in the study.
Determining the sample size is complex and involves several qualitative and
quantitative considerations. The qualitative factors are discussed in this section,
and the quantitative factors are considered in Chapter 12. Important qualitative
factors that should be considered in determining the sample size include: (1) the
importance of the decision, (2) the nature of the research, (3) the number of
variables, (4) the nature of the analysis, (5) sample sizes used in similar studies,
(6) incidence rates, (7) completion rates, and (8) resource constraints.
In general, for more important decisions, more information is necessary and the
information should be obtained more precisely. This calls for larger samples, but
as the sample size increases, each unit of information is obtained at greater cost.
The degree of precision may be measured in terms of the standard deviation of
the mean. The standard deviation of the mean is inversely proportional to the
square root of the sample size. The larger the sample, the smaller the gain in
precision by increasing the sample size by one unit.
Contd…

DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS
Confidence intervals and other statistical concepts that play a central role in sample size
determination are defined in the following list.
Parameter: A parameter is a summary description of a fixed characteristic or measure of
the target population. A parameter denotes the true value that would be obtained if a
census rather than a sample were undertaken.
Statistic: A Statistic is a summary description of a characteristic or measure of the
sample. The sample statistic is used as an estimate of the population parameter.
Finite Population Correction: The finite population correction (f p c) is a correction for
overestimation of the variance of a population parameter, for example, a mean or
proportion, when the sample size is 10 percent or more of the population size.
Precision level: When estimating a population parameter by using a sample statistic, the
precision level is the desired size of the estimating interval. This is the maximum
permissible difference between the sample statistic and the population parameter.
Confidence interval: The confidence interval is the range into which the true population
parameter will fall, assuming a given level of confidence.
Confidence level: The confidence level is the probability that a confidence interval will
include the population parameter.
The symbols used in statistical notation for describing population and sample
characteristics are summarized in Table

TABLE
Symbols for Population and Sample Statistics
VARIABLE POPULATION SAMPLE
Mean
 X
Proportion

p
Variance 2 s2
Standard deviation

s
Size n
N
x Sx
Standard error of the mean
p
Standard error of the proportion Sp
X 
X X

S
Standardized variate (z) 
 S
Coefficient of variation (C) X

TABLE
Sample Size Determination for Means and Proportions
STEPS MEANS PROPORTIONS
1. Specify the level of precision. D=+ $5.00 D= p – π = + 0.05
2. Specify the confidence level (CL). CL = 95% CL = 95%
3. Determine the z value associated with the CL. z value is 1.96 z value is 1.96
4. Determine the standard deviation of the population. Estimate σ: Estimate π:
5. Determine the sample size using the formula for the σ = 55
2 2
z  (π
1 =
 )0.64
z2
n
standard error. n = D2 D2
0.64(1  0.64)(1.96) 2
552 (1.96) 2 n
n = 52 (0.05) 2
6. If the sample size represents 10% of the population, = 465 = 355

apply the finite population correction (fpc) nN nN
nc  nc 
7. If necessary, reestimate the confidence interval by N  n 1 N  n 1
employing s to estimate  p  zs p
 X zs x
8. If precision is specified in relative rather than absolute
terms, then use these equations to determine the
sample size. DC=2 zRμ
2
zD
2 = Rπ
(1   )
n n
R2 R 2

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Presentation

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 2

Details on Exploratory, Descriptive and Causal Research

Graphs and Numerical Summaries

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 4

Decisions regarding what, where, when, how ,

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 5

of the entire research process, starting from

utilize available resources efficiently to achieve

2. Procedures and techniques to be used for

4. Methods to be used in processing and

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 7

 Good design means good results,

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 8

 Flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being

height, age and so on. Quantitative values

are independent variable.

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 10

Any effect on the dependent variable from

the extraneous variable, it is called an

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 12

is affected by the influence of a extraneous variable,

or prediction has to be tested by scientific methods, it is

independent variable to a dependent variable

 H1: There will be a significant difference between

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 15

 H5: There will be a positive relationship

between project goal equivocality and media

between clearness of methodology and the use

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 18

Research Objective Appropriate Design

To gain background information, to define terms, to clarify Exploratory

To describe and measure marketing phenomena at a point Descriptive

To determine causality, test hypotheses, to make “if-then” Causal

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 19

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 20

 In Music we begin with ‘sa’ ‘re’ ‘ga’

These are building blocks in music and reading

Similarly in “research” we begin with Problem

topic in the first place

enough of the research in the are of interest

developing methods into methods that

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 22

Problem Formulation: "Well begun is half

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 23

experience of practical problems in the field

literature in your specific field

influenced by your background, culture,

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 25

 Nominal Group Technique

all of the methods for identifying relevant literature

think might be useful when formulating the research

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 29

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor-Research Methodology 30

research topic and research question

the starting point of research

Research, the More Productive your Work will