CHAPTER 12 – SOCIAL COGNITIVE AND CONSTRUCTIONIST

VIEW OF LEARNING

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dMdTBep3W9c&feature=relate
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Social processes in Learning
 Albert Bandura – social learning theory
grounded in behavioral principles of
reinforcement and punishment . He
added social factors
 Distinguishes between knowledge
(learning) and the observable
performance based on that learning.
 BOBO Doll experiment – One group
saw the model rewarded for punching
and kicking the doll, another group
saw the model punished for being
aggressive and the third no
consequences.
Social learning
 Children who watched the model being
punished for being aggressive , least likely to
be aggressive themselves.. However when
these children were promised rewards for
being aggressive they also demonstrated that
they could do it. The INCENTIVES affected
performance.
 Learning may have occurred even though the
student does not demonstrate it .. Until the
situation is “right”
 Many other factors may also be involved in
replicating a behavior. Physical limitations,
illness etc.
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_s9pG5CWXM&feature=related
Cognitive factors in Social
Learning
 Social cognitive perspective – beliefs
and attitudes.
 Enactive learning – knowledge
gained by doing and personally
experiencing the consequences
 Vicarious learning – gaining
knowledge by observing others.
People and animals learn by
observing. Role of observation is very
important
FOUR ELEMENTS OF
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
 1. Paying attention – One has to be paying attention
and not distracted to be able to absorb knowledge.
Physical factors such as being tired, being sick,
nervous, extremely excited or distracted by a
competing stimuli would mar one’s focus on a
subject.
 2. Retention – The proof that one has been paying
attention is when one is able to remember the
intended stimuli. Imagery and language play a great
part here. Memory is stored in “the form of mental
images or verbal descriptions.” Once it is stored, the
memory can be recalled later and be replicated in
one’s actions and behavior.
 Observational learning
 3. Production – requires one to have the ability to
duplicate the action or/and behavior (a wheelchair bound
person would not be able to duplicate a person doing cartwheels after
watching the video of a gymnast doing cartwheels) However, this
does not mean that day-dreaming is useless. It in fact
plays a part in refining our skills. “Our abilities improve
even when we just imagine ourselves performing! (Many
athletes, for example, imagine their performance in their mind’s eye prior
to actually performing)

 4. Motivation and reinforcement – We may acquire a

behaviour but may not perform it unless the
incentives/motivation is sufficient.
According to Bandura, there are two categories of
motives-positive [Past, Promised and Vicarious
reinforcements] and negative [Past, Promised and
vicarious punishments] (based on traditional behaviorism such as
BF Skinner’s Operant Conditioning and Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning)
Factors that affect observational
learning
 Developmental status – as one
matures one can concentrate, attend
longer. Increased capacity to process
information etc.
 Model prestige – Use of rock stars,
athletes etc. We attend to high status
individuals .
 Vicarious consequences – Imitate
models who are similar to our selves.
The consequences to the models who
we identify with influence our actions.
Factors that affect
observational learning
 Outcome expectations – Observers
(us) are more likely to perform a task
if it will result in positive/valued out
comes.
 Goal setting – We will attend to
models who demonstrate behaviors
that help achieve goals
 Self efficacy – If they can do it , I
can. More likely to observe a model
who is successful and who looks like
us ij some way.
OBSERVATIONAL AND
TEACHING
 Direct attention – Teacher draws attention to
something in the classroom, encourages the
students to use it..
 Fine Tuning – New situations watch how others
perform. Rules in your classroom – students will
observe how you reinforce , conduct your classroom
 Strengthening or weakening a behaviour. -- If you
set up clear rules / expectations about being on time
for class, completing homework etc. Essential that
you follow through
 Teaching new behaviour – Teacher as model.. You
demonstrate the skills , behaviours, attitude that you
want in your classroom
 Arousing Emotions - People , your students will also
develop emotional reactions to you and their
situation.
Reciprocal determinism

 Reciprocal determinism is the

theory set forth by psychologist
Albert Bandura that a person's
behavior both influences and is
influenced by personal factors
and the social environment.
Bandura’s Model of
Reciprocal Determinism
A model of a social cognitive
learning theory
 Personal factors:
Includes beliefs and attitudes that
affect learning, especially in
response to environmental stimuli.
 Behavioral factors:
Includes responses one makes in a
given situation.
 Environmental factors:
Includes the role of people, which are
in the environment of the person.  
To improve efficacy in both
students and teachers
 Encourage Students
Constructively.
 Monitor Feedback.
 Set Specific Goals.
 Expect That The Students will
Succeed.
 In general be positive , have
realistic expectations and,
believe in your students.
What is Constructivism?
 A view of learning based on the belief that
knowledge isn't a thing that can simply be
given by the teacher at the front of the
room to students in their desks.
 Students learn by fitting new information
together with what they already know
 Learners are the builders and creators of
meaning and knowledge
 Knowledge is constructed by learners
through an active, mental process of
development
Our many thanks go out to…
Jean Piaget, 1896-1980
 Piaget believed learning occurs by
an active construction of meaning,
rather than by receiving it passively.
 He states," when we, as learners,
encounter an experience or situation
that conflicts with our current way of
thinking, a state of imbalance is
created”
 We must alter our thinking to restore
equilibrium or balance
 To do this, we must associate
it with what we already know
 The developing child must
build cognitive structures
through the use of …..
 Mental maps
 Concept maps
Concept maps help us begin with
information we are familiar with and
branch out to build new ideas.
To further Piaget’s thinking....

 We must alter our thinking to restore

balance or equilibrium

 To do this, we must associate it with

what we already know

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M
emaPvcPU9Q
 Why constructivism is important?
 Fosters critical thinking
 Creates active and motivated
learners
 Students are able to learn
through constructing their own
understandings
 This approach frees teachers to
make decisions which enhance
and enrich student’s
development.
 How does the constructivist
teacher make this style work?
 He/she is flexible

 She/he creatively incorporates ongoing experiences

with real-life situations

 Students work in small groups

 Students work individually

 Interactive activities become main focus (if materials

can be related to an interest of the child, they are
more apt to remember them)
 What does student-centered
mean?
 The students are the center of
attention, not the teacher
 Children are placed in groups, they
work together to find meaning
 Each student takes on a different
objective or part of the assignment or
project
 They become “experts” on their
subject
 Students teach one another to become
experts on their “piece of the puzzle”

 Together, as a whole, the group

becomes experts from one another

 The teacher = facilitator, guide on the

side NOT mentor in the middle
WHY GROUP WORK ?

 Group discussion and interaction can

contribute to expression of different views
and opinions ( Piaget`s disequilibrium).
This in turn may force the student to rethink
their position.

 Vygotsky, stronger students can assist the

weaker one (MKO). Children can
accomplish tasks with social support before
they can do them alone. Cooperative
learning provides scaffolding and social
support
MISUSES OF GROUP
LEARNING
 ESSENTIAL Make sure lower status students are
not intimidated, all students are participating in the
process.

 DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP LEARNING:

1) Students often value the process or procedures
over the learning. Speed and finishing first more
important than thoughtfulness and learning

2) Students may support and reinforce misinformation if

not corrected/supervised by teacher

3) Socializing and interpersonal relationships dominate

4) Students may rely on the “best student” to do all the

work

5) Status differences may increase as the slower

students get frustrated and feel excluded
What about the constructivist
classroom?
"Students should be presented with real life problems and then

helped to discover information required to solve them" John Dewey

 As we now know, the environment is a

student-centered one
 Students are empowered by a teacher
who operates as a “guide on the side” vs.
a “mentor in the center” or “sage on the
stage”
 Classrooms are structured so that
learners are immersed in experiences
with in which they may engage in
meaningful………
Important roles of the Teacher
 Watching
 Listening
 Asking questions to learn about
students
 Having the ability to observe and
listen to one’s students and their
experiences in the classroom
contributes to his other ability to use
a constructivist approach
 A constructivist approach contributes
to one’s ability to observe and listen
in the classroom.
I believe in teaching through
constructivism because…

1. Allows for students to become

engaged with one another
2. Cuts out the “talking head”
3. Children learn through own
experiences based on their
lives
4. Remember information down
the road of life instead of
memorization
SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

 Socrates and Aristotle encouraged it.

 Alexander the Great and Descartes used
the skills.
 What is this concept that is a part of our
world's history?
 If it's a valid learning method that has a
positive correlation to achievement, why
aren't more schools encouraging self-
directed learning?
 What characterizes the
self-directed learner?

 They ask questions.

 They’re organized and focused.
 They’re responsible and hard
working.
 They’re creative and curious.
 They’re self-evaluative and
reflective.
 They go beyond the required.
“Know Thyself”

 Self-directed learners know how

they learn best.
 Help your students to determine that

(learning style inventory)

HOW DO TEACHERS FACILITATE
SELF-DIRECTED LEARNERS?

Role Playing
Scaffolding
Thinking Skills
Role Playing

Levels of Engagement
Intrinsic
Tactical
Compliant
Withdrawn
Defiant
INTRINSIC

You are very interested in what

you are learning about. Raise
your hand and ask,
“Ms. Teacher, I really like learning
about the world. Where can I
get more information?”
TACTICAL

You are paying attention and want

to get a good grade on the
assignment.
Raise your hand and ask, “I want to
make sure I understand the
assignment. How many
paragraphs should my response
be?”
COMPLIANT

You are paying attention only

because you have to. Raise
your hand and ask,
“What do I have to do to get a C?”
WITHDRAWN

You look like you are paying

attention, but you really are not.
Raise your hand and ask, “Can I
go to the bathroom?”
DEFIANT

YOU DON’T CARE AT ALL!

Put your head down and go to
sleep.
Scaffolding

 R.A.F.T.
 Role
 Audience

 Format

 Topic

 RAFT Strategy
Thinking Skills

Six Student-Owned Strategies

Prediction
Visualization
Summarizing
Making Connections
Clarification
Asking Questions
Evaluation
“Schools cannot be made great by
great teacher performances.
They will only be made great by
great student performances.”

- Schlechty
MOTIVATION - Chapter 13

INTRINSIC - Motivation associated with

activities that are their own reward
Extrinsic – Rewards and punishments. We
do something to get a good grade/reward.
Locus of causality –
Internal locus of control – You are
responsible for your successes and
failures
External locus of control – Luck, personal
attitudes of other people. Teacher
/Professor
APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION

 1) Behavioral – reward and incentive

Reward – something that is presented
as a consequence of our behavior
that we think is attractive.
Incentive – Something that actually
motivates a person
Good grades may not be an incentive
or a reward for some people
MOTIVATION

 2) HUMANISTIC – We are inherently

motivated to fulfill our own potential to self
actualize.
 Abraham Maslow , Carl Rogers.
HUMANISM -MASLOW’S
HIERACRCHY OF NEEDS

SELF ACTUALIZATION

LOVE

BELONGINES

SAFETY

SURVIVAL – FOOD, SHELTER

Maslow

 Deficiency needs – Meeting

survival, safety, belongingness
and love – decreases one’s
focus on them

 BEING NEEDS – Self

actualization – striving to fulfill
one’s potential
COGNTIVE APPROACHES TO
MOTIVATION
 People are active participants in
attempting to solve their own
problems and to achieve their
own goals.
 ATTRIBUTION THEORY – How
does one’s explanation,
justification and excuses
influence their behaviors and
motivation.
ATTRIBUTION IN THE
CLASSROOM
 Academically solid students- attribute
lack of success to insufficient
knowledge or lack of hard work
whereas problems arise when students
attribute their failures to stable
uncontrollable causes. The teacher
hates me, I am to dumb to pass.
 Apathy is a logical reaction to failure
when you believe you have no control
…
Teachers actions and student
motivation
 Be cautious in not over using
“good try /Nice effort”

Provision of feedback /assistance

to correct mistakes very
important.. Make sure you
praise more than just effort.
SOCIO-CULTURAL VIEW OF
MOTIVATION
 The role of the teacher is to set up the
classroom to maximize success for the
student..
 Have the stronger students assist
weaker students.. The teacher provides
more assistance to the slower students.
 Legitimate peripheral participation –
New student/team member less familiar
with the tasks but your job is to help the
less experienced student work up to the
level of the rest of the class..
GOAL ORIENTATION
 FOUR KINDS OF GOALS
1) Learning goals – to improve, to learn regardless
of mistakes. These students tend to take chances
and persist even when encounter difficulties.
Task involved learners –mastery is most
important
2) Performance goals – Students focuses on how
they are being judged, they want to look smart.
May be most concerned about winning. Ego
involved learner may be more likely to
- Cheat/copy from classmates
- Seek attention for performance
- Compares their grades with other students
- Chooses tasks which they know they can look
good doing
GOALS

 Work avoidant learners – They

feel successful when they do not
have to try harder, or the work is
easy

SOCIAL Goals – Athletics, dating

and hanging out may become
more important as students get
older. Middle school years
GOALS AND TEACHING
 Teachers need to set clear, specific ,
reasonable , moderately challenging
and attainable goals in order to
optimally motivate students.
 Overstress student performance goals
and achievement - may encourage
students to set performance goals –
Undermine learning and task
involvement.
 Private , elite schools.. Excellent
grades basic goal for every student,
“guarantee that you will get into the
university of your choice”
INTERESTS AND EMOTIONS

 AROUSAL LEVELS - Physical

and Psychological reactions
influence motivation and
achivement.
 On a simple or well practised task
– the best performance occurs
when arousal is moderately high.
On complex tasks, lower arousal
leads to better performance.
Teaching strategies and dealing
with anxiety in the classroom
 Use competition carefully – monitor the students to
make sure they are not under to much pressure
 Use cooperative learning whenever possible
 Avoid situations where highly anxious students will
have to perform in from of large groups – Give anxious
students the opportunity to practice in front of small
groups of their peers
 Make sure all instructions for exams/assignments are
clear. Write the test instructions on the board or hand
the out.
 Avoid unnecessary time pressures
 Give practice tests
 Make extra credit work available to add points to
course grades for those who need /want to
 Develop a variety of testing strategies.
-Learning disabled students will require more time,
different exam format..
SELF SCHEMAS
 Incremental View of Ability – Children
– ever expanding repertoire of skills
and knowledge. Hard work, study, and
practice- knowledge can be increased.
About the age of 11 – Beliefs about
ability influence motivation.
 Entity view of ability – ability is a fixed
characteristic and some people have
more ability than others. Not likely to
take academic risks as failure would
indicate lack of ability
Self efficacy
 Bandura – belief’s about one’s capabilities
to organize and execute strategies
needed to succeed. Prediction about your
capabilities specific to a particular task
 Self concept –more global self evaluation.
 Sources of self efficacy –
 1) Mastery experiences – success raises
self efficacy , failure lowers them.
Higher levels of anxiety (worry) lower self
efficacy
Self efficacy
 2) Vicarious experiences – when you
watch someone you believe has similar
attributes and abilities to you and they
succeed, your self efficacy increases
3) Social persuasion – Talk from coach,
teacher , friend giving you
encouragement may temporarily
increase self efficacy to the point where
you make the additional effort or
attempt the task in a different way.
Self efficacy
 Self efficacy and achievement
research suggests that
performance in school is improved
and self efficacy increased when
students:
a) Adopt short term achievable goals
b) Are taught specific learning
strategies such as outlining,
summarizing that help them focus
c) Receive rewards based on
performance not just engagement.
Teacher self efficacy

 Your feelings of self efficacy

related to real success with
students, teaching in a school
where staff and administration
have high expectations.
Experience and training assist the
new teacher in developing the
skills necessary to be successful
and improve self efficacy
Self determination in the
classroom
 Self determination is the need to
experience choice and control in
what we do.
 Classroom environments that
support student self
determination and autonomy are
associated with greater student
interest, sense of competence,
creativity and preference for a
challenge.
HOW TO SUPPORT SELF
DETERMINATION IN YOUR
CLASSROOM
 Allow and encourage students to make
choices – design several ways to meet a
learning objective, i.e. a paper, a test and
oral exam
 Hold students accountable – evaluate the
students based on actual performance.
 Explain the reasons for the rules
 See poor performance or behavior as a
problem to be solved not a target of criticism
 Communicate that not all learning is going to
be exciting all the time. That working through
frustration and boredom is important
Teacher influences on student
motivation
 TARGETT –
- The Task set for the students
- Autonomy students are allowed in
working
- How students are Recognized for
accomplishments
- Grouping practices
- Evaluation procedures
- How Time is scheduled.
- Teacher Expectations.
MOTIVATION AND TASK
OPERATION
 TASKS - Depending on the task
various operations may be required
including:
a) Memory – memorizing dates, places,
times etc
b) Routine procedures – using
mathematical rules/formulas to solve a
problem
c) Comprehension- requiring
understanding, integration of ideas
d) Opinion – requires the student to
outline a personal belief and on what
basis
MOTIVATION
 Some tasks less risky – stating an opinion or
belief may be perceived as risky. Highly
anxious students may find this more difficult
 Comprehension type task where they may be
no “right” answer may be difficult for some
student to risk trying to answer the question.
 What can teachers do to motivate students
who find it difficult to take academic risks?
Give real world examples of an issue or
problem?
Teachers act as mentor, guide, ask pertinent
questions etc.
TEACHER EXPECTATIONS AND
MOTIVATION
 PYGMALION IN THE CLASSROOM – Rosenthal
and Jacobson (1968) -They randomly chose a
number of students in elementary school
classrooms and told their respective teachers that
these students would make significant gains over
the year. At the end of the year, these randomly
chosen students – fulfilled the expectations of the
researchers… Self Fulfilling Prophecy..

 Teacher’s who have high expectation of a student

tend to interact more with that student, reinforce
and challenge the student.
Students who see the teacher having high
expectations of them tend to do better , participate
more and overall more successful