Chapter - 4 Load Tracing

Chapter 4
4.1 Load Tracing

• Load tracing is the process of modeling how
a structure collects, channels, and redirects
the loads resulting from external forces
through the hierarchy of its members to the
foundation and underlying soil.
• The analysis usually starts at the roof level

with the smallest members actually picking
up the loading, and proceeds by tracing the
loads through each collecting member.
• The reactions of each member to its loading

becomes forces on the members supporting
it.
• The hierarchical sequence of load tracing is

generally the same for concrete, steel, and
timber spanning systems.
• Simple determinate structures can be

thoroughly analyzed using free-body
diagrams (FBDs) in conjunction with the
basic equations of equilibrium.
© ©2012, 2007, 2002, 1999 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

Statics and Strength of Materials for Architecture and Building Construction, 4 th © ©2012,
Upper 2007,
Saddle 2002,New
River, 1999 by Pearson
Jersey 07458 Higher Education,
· All Rights Inc.
Reserved
edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 · All Rights Reserved
Barry Onouye
Load Paths
• Surface-forming structure, such as structural

sheathing or decking distributes the applied load
to its supporting joists or beams in the form of a
distributed load.
• Beams transfers the applied distributed load

horizontally to supporting girders, trusses,
columns, or bearing wall.
• Tributary Area is the portion of a structure

contributing to the load on a structural element
or member.
• Load Strip is the tributary area per unit length of

a supporting structural member.
• Tributary Load is the load on a structural element

or member collected from its Tributary Area.
• Bearing refers to a point, surface, or mass that

supports weight, especially the area of contact
between a bearing member, as a beam or truss,
and a column, wall, or other underlying support.
• Anchorage refers to the means for binding a

structural member to another or to its foundation,
often to resist uplifting and horizontal forces.
Statics and Strength of Materials for Architecture and Building Construction, 4 th © ©2012, 2007, 2002, 1999 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc.
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Tributary Area
• Loads uniformly distributed over an area of roof or floor

are assigned to individual members (rafters, joists,
beams, girders) based on the concept of distributive area,
tributary area, or contributory area.
• This concept typically considers the area that a member

must support as being halfway between the adjacent
similar members.
• The tributary width contributing to the load on a joist is

1/2 the distance between adjacent joists on both sides
(which happens to be the joist spacing).
• Since wood joists are spaced relatively closely together,

the load on the supporting beam is assumed to be
uniform.
• The load condition of the joist and beam are shown

below.
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Tributary Area - (cont’d)
• In this example, loads are initially resisted by

the sheathing or decking.
• The decking distributes the load to the

supporting beams below.
• The tributary width of load for the beam is

equal to 1/2 the distance between adjacent
beams on both sides.
• Loads are uniformly distributed along the

length of the beam.
• Beam reactions are applied as concentrated

loads onto the supporting girder (unlike joist
framing).
• Girders resist the beam loads and distribute

concentrated loads to the columns/footings.
• FDB’s and equations of equilibrium are used

throughout the load trace process.
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Example Problem 4.1 - Load Trace
• A steel framed floor for an office building was

designed to support a load condition as follows:
Loads:
• Using appropriate FBDs, determine the

reaction forces for beams B1, B2, and B3, and
girder G1.
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Example Problem 4.1 - Load Trace
Example Problem 4.1 - (cont’d)
Beam B-1:
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Beam B-2:
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Beam B-3:
This beam has two different load

conditions due to the changing tributary
width created by the opening.
For 12’ of span:
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Girder G-1:
Girder G1 supports reactions from beams B2 and B3.
Beams B1 & B4 sends their reaction directly to the

column and causes no load to appear in girder G1.
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4.2 Lateral Stability Load Tracing
• A building must have a structural system

capable of carrying its gravity loads.
• In addition, the building must be stabilized

and supported by a lateral force resisting
system.
• The lateral force resisting system must

prevent lateral instability of the gravity load-
carrying elements and any combination of
environmental conditions such as wind,
earthquake.
• Load paths along which lateral loads travel Lateral stability?

through the building to the foundations
should be as direct as possible.
• Directness of load paths vertically through the

building should be continuous from the roof
to the foundation.
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Lateral Stability
• Post and beam systems with pinned joints are laterally

unstable without some form of bracing, rigid joints or
shear wall.
• Although the conditions of equilibrium need to be

satisfied for each structural element or member in the
structural framework, it is not a sufficient condition to
ensure the geometric stability of the whole structure.
Post and Beam System
• Geometric stability refers to a configurational property

that preserves the geometry of a structure through its
elements strategically arranged and interacting
together to resist loads.
• All building structures require a certain set(s) of

elements, referred to as a bracing system, which
provides the requisite stability for the entire structural
geometry.
• A minimum of three lateral resisting vertical planes

and the horizontal roof or floor plane, must be
present in a framework to resist gravity loads and
lateral forces from two orthogonal directions.
Basic Geometric Stability
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Lateral Resisting Systems
• In general, there are three basic mechanisms
commonly used, alone or in combination, for
assuring the lateral stability of a building.
• They include diagonal bracing (braced frames),

shear walls, and rigid frames (joints rigidly
attached).
• Braced frames consist of beam/column

frameworks in-filled with diagonal bracing.
• A braced frame may be located internally within

the building or it may be placed in the exterior
façade.
• Braced frames may be concealed in walls or

partitions, or it may be exposed to view.
• Examples of the great variety of bracing systems

in use are single diagonal bracing, double
diagonal bracing, K-bracing, vertical or
horizontal, lattice bracing, knee bracing, and
eccentric bracing.
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Lateral Resisting Systems - (Braced Frames)
• Single diagonal braces provide the

triangulation necessary to stabilize the
system for lateral loads.
• The single diagonal brace must be capable

of resisting tension or compression as the
lateral load direction changes.
• Diagonal X-bracing come as paired

diagonals capable of resisting tension only.
X-Bracing
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Lateral Resisting Systems - (Braced Frames - cont’d)
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Lateral Resisting Systems - (Moment Resisting Frames - cont’d)
• Cast-in-place concrete or pre-cast concrete with

cast-in-place joints provides the rigid or semi-
rigid monolithic joints required.
• Frames may consist of beams and columns, flat

slabs and columns, and slabs with bearing walls.
• The inherent continuity that occurs in the

monolithic casting of concrete provides a
naturally occurring moment-resistant
connection.
• Structural steel beams and columns may be

connected together to develop moment frame
action by means of welding, high-strength
bolting, or a combination of the two.
Rigid Frames in Two Directions
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Lateral Resisting Systems - (Shear Walls)
• Shear walls are planar, generally vertical

elements which are relatively thin and long.
There are generally very few openings or
penetrations.
• In buildings, the shear walls must be strong in

themselves and also firmly connected to each
other and to the horizontal diaphragms.
• Structural diaphragms are the horizontal

resistance elements, generally floors and roofs,
that transfer the lateral forces (wind or
earthquake) between the vertical resistance
elements (shear walls or frames).
Concrete Shear Walls
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Lateral Resisting Systems - (Shear Walls - cont’d)
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Bracing Configurations
• Buildings are three-dimensional

frameworks and not planar two-dimensional
frames.
• A fundamental requirement for geometric

stability for a three-dimensional structure is
its ability to resist loads from three
orthogonal directions.
• A three-dimensional frame can be stabilized

by the use of bracing elements or shearwalls
in a limited number of panels in the vertical
and horizontal planes.
• The transverse exterior walls of a building

transmit the earthquake or wind forces to
the roof and floors, which in turn direct
them to the utility/service cores, shearwalls,
or braced frames.
• In most cases, the roof and floor systems

form horizontal diaphragms, which can
perform this function.
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Bracing Configurations - (cont’d)
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Lateral Stability - Simple Diaphragms and Shear Walls
• Structural diaphragms are the horizontal

resistance elements, generally floors and roofs.
• Diaphragms transfer the lateral forces (wind or

earthquake) between the vertical resistance
elements (shear walls or frames).
• Diaphragms also provide stabilizing forces to

slender columns from the stiffer walls or frames
that provide lateral bracing and stability for the
structure.
• Although diaphragms are usually horizontal, they

can be curved or sloped as is frequently the case
in roof construction.
• Roof and floor diaphragms must be capable of

transmitting the applied lateral forces to shear
walls, braced frames or rigid frames through
their planar strength.
• Structural diaphragms generally have

tremendous strength and stiffness in their plane.
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Lateral Stability - (Simple Diaphragms and Shear Walls - cont’d)
• Wind load is applied to the front wall,

called the windward wall.
• Suction, or negative pressure, develops on

the back or leeward wall.
• The respective pressures, (+p and-p) times

the tributary wall area (the upper half of
the wall area) generates an w and w’ load to
the edges of the roof diaphragm.
• Diaphragms represent flat beams,

absorbing the w loads in bending, and
transferring the shear loads to the exterior
walls aligned parallel to the wind direction.
• Walls resisting the shear loads ‘V’ are

referred to as shear walls.
• Its function is to transmit this shear force V

to the foundation.
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• As in beams carrying gravity loads, diaphragms

develop tension (T) and compression (C) forces along
the windward and leeward edges of the roof
diaphragm.
• Diaphragm boundary edges resisting the tension (T)

and compression (C) forces function in a similar way
to the flanges on a wide flanged beam.
• The sheathing, metal decking, or concrete slab is

responsible for resisting the shear forces.
• In wood-framed construction, diaphragms consist of

plywood or similar sheathing material applied over
the floor framing.
• The plywood or sheathing acts as the shear web

while the floor framing, with proper connections,
forms long continuous elements which can resist
tension from the chords, ties, and drag elements.
• Shear strength of the plywood diaphragm depends

on panel layout and edge nailing while appropriate
chord strength must be provided in the framing.
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• The shear wall is placed in equilibrium by the dead

load weight of the wall and the resisting couple
created by the tension (T*) and compression (C*)
at the wall edges or corners.
• Special tension anchors (hold-downs) may be

necessary to resist the uplifting and over-turning
tendency of the wall due to V.
Timber Hold-downs
Barry Onouye

Chapter - 4 Load Tracing

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Chapter - 4 Load Tracing

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Chapter 4

4.1 Load Tracing

• The analysis usually starts at the roof level

• The reactions of each member to its loading

• The hierarchical sequence of load tracing is

• Simple determinate structures can be

© ©2012, 2007, 2002, 1999 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc.

• Surface-forming structure, such as structural

• Beams transfers the applied distributed load

• Tributary Area is the portion of a structure

• Load Strip is the tributary area per unit length of

• Tributary Load is the load on a structural element

• Bearing refers to a point, surface, or mass that

• Anchorage refers to the means for binding a

• Loads uniformly distributed over an area of roof or floor

• This concept typically considers the area that a member

• The tributary width contributing to the load on a joist is

• Since wood joists are spaced relatively closely together,

• The load condition of the joist and beam are shown

• In this example, loads are initially resisted by

• The decking distributes the load to the

• The tributary width of load for the beam is

• Loads are uniformly distributed along the

• Beam reactions are applied as concentrated

• Girders resist the beam loads and distribute

• FDB’s and equations of equilibrium are used

• A steel framed floor for an office building was

• Using appropriate FBDs, determine the

This beam has two different load

Girder G1 supports reactions from beams B2 and B3.

Beams B1 & B4 sends their reaction directly to the

• A building must have a structural system

• In addition, the building must be stabilized

• The lateral force resisting system must

• Load paths along which lateral loads travel Lateral stability?

• Directness of load paths vertically through the

• Post and beam systems with pinned joints are laterally

• Although the conditions of equilibrium need to be

• Geometric stability refers to a configurational property

• All building structures require a certain set(s) of

• A minimum of three lateral resisting vertical planes

Basic Geometric Stability

• They include diagonal bracing (braced frames),

• Braced frames consist of beam/column

• A braced frame may be located internally within

• Braced frames may be concealed in walls or

• Examples of the great variety of bracing systems

• Single diagonal braces provide the

• The single diagonal brace must be capable

• Diagonal X-bracing come as paired

• Cast-in-place concrete or pre-cast concrete with

• Frames may consist of beams and columns, flat

• The inherent continuity that occurs in the

• Structural steel beams and columns may be

Rigid Frames in Two Directions

• Shear walls are planar, generally vertical

• In buildings, the shear walls must be strong in

• Structural diaphragms are the horizontal

Concrete Shear Walls

• Buildings are three-dimensional

• A fundamental requirement for geometric

• A three-dimensional frame can be stabilized

• The transverse exterior walls of a building