MECHATRONICS

Notes by
ARULSAHAYABENI, M.E.,
 Unit 1- Introduction

Introduction to Mechatronics – Systems – Concepts

of Mechatronics approach – Need for Mechatronics –
Emerging areas of Mechatronics – Classification of
Mechatronics. Sensors and Transducers: Static and
dynamic Characteristics of Sensor, Potentiometers –
LVDT – Capacitance sensors – Strain gauges – Eddy
current sensor – Hall effect sensor – Temperature
sensors – Light sensors
 Introduction to Mechatronics
• Mechatronics brings together the areas of
technology involving sensors and
measurement system, drive and actuation
system, analysis of behavior of the system,
control system and microprocessor system
• Word oriented at japan in 1980s to denotes
combination of technologies. ‘Mecha’ from
mechanical ‘tronics’ from ‘electronics’
Cont…

• In the design now of cars, robots, machine

tools, washing machines, cameras, and very
many other machines, such an integrated and
interdisciplinary approach to engineering
design is increasingly being adopted
Mechatronics has to involve a concurrent
approach to these disciplines rather than a
sequential approach
Graphical representation
elements of mechatronics system
Blocks…….
• Actuators: Sensors and actuators mostly come under mechanical systems. The actuators
produce motion or cause some action.(ex) inputs, and outputs.Solenoids, voice coils,
D.C. motors, Stepper motors, Servomotor, hydraulics, pneumatics.

• Sensors:  The sensors detect the state of the system parameters (ex ) Switches,
Potentiometer, Photoelectrics, Digital encoder, Strain
gauge,Thermocouple, accelerometer etc.

• Input signal conditioning and interfacing:   The input devices receive input signals
from the mechatronic systems via interfacing devices and sensors. Then it is sent to the
control circuits for conditioning or processing. (ex)Discrete circuits, Amplifiers, Filters,
A/D,D/A.

• Output signal conditioning and interfacing:  The output signals from the system are
sent to output/display devices through interfacing devices. (ex)D/A D/D, Amplifiers,
PWM, Powertransistor, Power Op - amps.
 
Blocks…….
Digital logic systems: 
Digital logic devices control overall system operation (ex)Logic circuits,
Microcontroller, SBC, PLC, Sequencing andtiming, Logic and arithmetic,
Control algorithm, Communication.

Software and data acquisition systems

• The data acquisition system acquires the output signals from sensors in the
form of voltage, frequency, resistance etc. and it is inputted into the
microprocessor or computer. Software is used to control the acquisition of
data through DAC board. The data acquisition system consists of a
multiplexer, amplifier, register, and control circuitry., and DAC board. The
various data acquisition systems used in the mechatronic system is data
loggers, computer with plug-in boards, etc.
Blocks…….
• Computers and display devices
Computers are used to store a large number of data
and process further through software. Display devices
are used to give visual feedback to the user. The
various display devices used in the mechatronic
system are LEDs, CRT, LCD, digital displays, etc.
 Systems
• The system is a group of physical component
combined to perform a specific function. Any
mechatronics devices consist of system

• A system can be thought of as a box which has an

input, and an output and where we are not concerned
with what goes on inside the box but only the
relationship between the output and the input.
Example: A Motor.
 TYPES
• Basically in mechatronics we divide the
systems in to 2 types

• 1. Measurement System.
• 2. Control System.
 Measurement System.
• Measurement system, any of the systems
used in the process of associating numbers
with physical quantities and phenomena.

• It has an input the quantity being measured

and its output the value of that quantity.
basic elements of measurement system
Blocks…
• A transducer is a device that converts energy
from one form to another.
• Signal processor or conditioner recevie o/p of
senor and manipulates into suitable input to
control system
• Recorder recodes o/p from control system and
display unit used to display the o/p (LED,LCD.,)
 Example of measurment

Digital water level monitering system

 CONTROL SYSTEM:
• A control system can be defined as a block box
which can be used to control its output to
some particular value. In a system when the
output quantity is controlled by varying the
input quantity then the system is called as
Control system
• Example: a domestic central heating control
system (AC)
Cont….
• The output quantity is called as controlled
variable or response and the input quantity is
called as command signal or excitation.
• In Control system, we have two types
• 1. Open loop control system.
• 2. Closed loop control system.
Cont….
• Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback
system, is a type of continuous control system in
which the output has no influence or effect on the
control action of the input signal.
• A Closed-loop Control System, also known as
a feedback control system is a control system which
uses the concept of an open loop system as its
forward path but has one or more feedback loops
(hence its name) or paths between its output and its
input
example
 Ad&disad
• OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS have the advantage of being
• Relatively simple and
• Consequently low cost with generally good reliability.
• However, there are disadvantages like,
• Inaccurate since there is no correction for error.
• CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS have the advantage of being
• Relatively accurate in matching the actual to the required values.
• However, there are disadvantages like,
• More complex
• So more costly
 Concepts of Mechatronics approach

Functions of control system

• Minimize the error bw actual and desired

output
• Minimize the time response for load change
 Applications of control systems
• Print wheel control system of a printer
• Temperature control of an oven
• Sun tracking control of solar collector
• Idle speed control system of an automobile
Example of open loop controlsystems
bread toaster
Chemical addition pump
Example of cloed loop controlsystems
2. Temperature Control System
Exp….
• The main purpose possessed by a temperature control system
is to maintain a constant temperature of water. Generally,
these systems are used to provide an invariable temperature
(hot) at the output
• If the desired temperature (reference input) shows
equivalency with the generated temperature, then the control
signal is generated and the flow of steam is stopped.
• But if some amount of variation exists between the two
temperature values then the controller generates the control
signal regarding the level of temperature difference which is
further compensated during the process.
 Emerging areas of Mechatronics
• 3D Printing: With some of the biggest
industries in India already applying it for design
visualization and optimization, 3D printing is a
revolutionary technology that is sprawling in
almost all modern work fields
• The energy system program covers engineering
knowledge and skills in areas such as energy
generation, conversion, electrical power
systems and energy management.
Cont…
• UAV developments: An unmanned aerial vehicle commonly
known as a drone is growing is huge popularity with some of
the top online companies for the quick delivery of the
ordered goods to the customers
• Robotics:  If not now, we all know that robots will play a
greater part in providing services than what they do today.
In fact creating robots might continue to be expensive and
some high-end models might cost as much as an economy
car but that doesn’t stop individuals from seizing the
opportunity the profession has to offer in future
Classification of Mechatronics
• Conventional mechatronic system
• Micro electrochemical (MEMS)
• Nano electrochemical(NEMS)
Based on technologies incorporated and product
features Japan society for the promotion of
machine industry(JSPMI)
Class 1 ,2,3,4
CLASSIFICATION
• Measurement is an important subsystem of a
mechatronics system
• Measurement system comprises of sensors,
transducers and signal processing devices. Today a
wide variety of these elements and devices are
available in the market. For a mechatronics system
designer it is quite difficult to choose suitable
sensors/transducers for the desired application(s). It
is therefore essential to learn the principle of
working of commonly used sensors/transducers
• “A device which provides a usable output in
response to a specified measurand.” Here, the
output is usually an ‘electrical quantity’ and
measurand is a ‘physical quantity, property or
condition which is to be measured’.
• Sensors are also called detectors. They embedded in
our bodies, automobiles, airplanes, cellular
telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants
and countless other applications. Without the use of
sensors, there would be no automation
 Transducer
• defined as a device that converts a signal from
one form of energy to another form.
• A sensing ELEMENT
• A transconduction element
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
Potentiometer
Strain-gauged element
Capacitive element
Differential transformers
Eddy current proximity sensors
Inductive proximity switch
Hall effect sensors
B. Velocity and motion
Incremental encoder
Tachogenerator
Pyroelectric sensors
C. Force
Strain gauge load cell
D. Fluid pressure
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
Piezoelectric sensors
Tactile sensor
E. Liquid flow
Orifice plate
Turbine meter
F. Liquid level
Floats
Differential pressure
G. Temperature
Bimetallic strips
Resistance temperature detectors
Thermistors
Thermo-diodes and transistors
Thermocouples
Light sensors
Photo diodes
Photo resistors
Photo transistor
• 1. Range
• The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
• For example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might
• have a range of 25-225 °C.
• 2. Span
• The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input.
• Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.
• 3. Error
• Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value
• of the quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading
• of 29.8 mm, when the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error
• is –0.2 mm.
• 4. Accuracy
• The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
• measurement result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed
• as a percentage of the full range output or full–scale deflection.
• 5. Sensitivity
• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of
change in output value of a
• sensor to the per unit change in input value
that causes the output change.
• For example, a general purpose thermocouple
may have a sensitivity of 41
• μV/°C.
• 6. Nonlinearity
• The nonlinearity indicates the maximum
deviation of the actual measured curve
• of a sensor from the ideal curve
• Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in
input ⁄ Maximum full scale input
• 7. Hysteresis
• Hysteresis error curve
• The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is
defined as the maximum
• difference in output at any measurement value
within the sensor’s specified
• range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with
• decreasing the input parameter.
• 8. Resolution
• Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input
parameter
• that can be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be
expressed either
• as a proportion of the full-scale reading or in absolute terms. For
example, if
• a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and it
provides an
• output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the
sensor
• device is 0.2 mm.
• Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same
output when used to
• measure a constant input over a period of time. The
term ‘drift’ is used to
• indicate the change in output that occurs over a period
of time
• 10.Dead band/time
• The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the
range of input values for
• which there is no output
• 11.Repeatability
• It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for
repeated applications
• of same input value
• 12.Response time
• Response time describes the speed of change in the output on
a step-wise
• change of the measurand. It is always specified with an
indication of input
• step and the output range for which the response time is
defined.
 potentiometer
• The potentiometer can be of
• linear or angular type. It works on the
principle of conversion of mechanical
• displacement into an electrical signal.
symbol
potentiometer
 construction
• The slider moves along this conductive body,
• acting as a movable electric contact.
• The object of whose displacement is to be
measured is connected to theslider by using
• • a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)
• • a moving rod (for linear displacement
• a cable that is kept stretched during operation
 potentiometer
• The resistive element is a wire wound track or
conductive plastic. Conductive plastic is made
up of plastic resin embedded with the
carbonpowder.
• Wire wound track has a resolution of the
order of ± 0.01 % while theconductive plastic
may have the resolution of about 0.1 μm.
 Potentiometer working
• there are two resistive paths just like the
resistor is split into two resistors.
• During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is
applied across the resistive element. A voltage
divider circuit is formed when slider comes
into contact with the wire.
 working
• Out of these two resistors, the one having
longer resistive path will have a higher
resistance. This is due to the fact that resistance
of a resistor depends on its length (since R=ρ).
Higher the length, higher is the resistance,
provided the material of the resistor and its
cross-sectional area remains same.
• Vout =  {R2/(R1+R2)} x V; where V= supply
voltage
 working
• When the wiper is at terminal 1, R1 becomes
zero and the voltage across the wiper is same
as the supply voltage.

• Also, when the wiper is at terminal 3, the

effective resistive path for R2 is zero, hence the
resistance R2  is zero
 Ad/disad
• ADVANTAGE
• Easy to use
• Low cast
• High amplitude o/p \
Disad
Limited bandwidth
Frictional loading
Limited life
 Applications of potentiometer

• These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a

feedback loop
• to ensure that the moving member or component reaches its
commanded
• position.
• These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-
level
• assemblies, forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls. In
manufacturing,
• these are used in control of injection molding machines, woodworking
machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are also used in
• computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment
 LVDT- OVERVIEW
• The term LVDT or Linear Variable Differential
Transformer is a robust, complete linear arrangement
transducer and naturally frictionless. They have an
endless life cycle when it is used properly..
• The LVDT full form is “Linear Variable Differential
Transformer” is LVDT. Generally, LVDT is a normal type
of transducer. The main function of this is to convert
the rectangular movement of an object to the
equivalent electrical signal. LVDT is used to calculate
displacement and works on the transformer principle
 OVERVIEW
• The applications of LVDTs mainly include automation,
power turbines, aircraft, hydraulics, nuclear reactors,
satellites, and many more. These types of transducers
 contain low physical phenomena and outstanding
repetition.
• The LVDT alters a linear dislocation from a mechanical
position into a relative electrical signal including phase and
amplitude of the information of direction and distance.
• The operation of LVDT does not need an electrical bond
between the touching parts and coil, but as an alternative
depends on the electromagnetic coupling
 Construction

• LVDT comprises of a cylindrical former, which is bounded

by one main winding in the hub of the former and the two
minor LVDT windings are wound on the surfaces.
cylindrical former. The excitation voltage of AC is 5-12V
and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

• For this reason, the o/p voltages will be the variation in

voltages among the two minor coils. Esteem iron core is
located in the middle of the cylindrical former. The
excitation voltage of AC is 5-12V and the operating
frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.
Construction
Construction
 Working Principle of LVDT

• The working principle of the linear variable

differential transformer or LVDT working
theory is mutual induction. The dislocation is a
nonelectrical energy that is changed into an 
electrical energy. And, how the energy is
altered is discussed in detail in the working of
an LVDT.
Working
 Working of an LVDT

• In Case-1: When the core of the LVDT is at the null location, then both
the minor windings flux will equal, so the induced e.m.f is similar in the
windings. So for no dislocation, the output value (eout) is zero because
both the e1 & e2 are equivalent. Thus, it illustrates that no dislocation
took place.
• In Case-2: When the core of the LVDT is shifted to up to the null point. In
this case, the flux involving with minor winding S1 is additional as
contrasted to flux connecting with the S 2 winding. Due to this reason, e1
will be added as that of e2. Due to this eout (output voltage) is positive.
• In Case-3: When the core of the LVDT is shifted down to the null point, In
this case, the amount of e2 will be added as that of e1. Due to this
eout output voltage will be negative plus it illustrates the o/p to down on
the location point
 Types of LVDT
Captive Armature LVDT
These types of LVDTs are superior for lengthy working series. This LVDTs help to
prevent incorrect arrangement because they are directed and controlled by low
resistance assemblies.
Unguided Armatures
These types of LVDTs have unlimited resolution behavior, the mechanism of this
type of LVDT is a no-wear plan that doesn’t control the motion of calculated data.
This LVDT is connected to the sample to be calculated, fitting limply in the
cylinder, involving the linear transducer’s body to be held independently.
Force Extended Armatures
Utilize internal spring mechanisms, electric motors to move forward the armature
constantly to its fullest level achievable. These armatures are employed in LVDT’s
for sluggish moving applications. These devices don’t need any connection
between the armature and specimen.
Frequency Based, Current Balance AC/AC based, or DC/DC based.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

• The measurement of the displacement range of LVDT is very high, and it ranges from
1.25 mm -250 mm.
• The LVDT output is very high,. It owns a high compassion which is normally about
40V/mm.
• When the core travels within a hollow former consequently there is no failure of
displacement input while frictional loss so it makes an LVDT as a very precise device.
• LVDT demonstrates a small hysteresis and thus repetition is exceptional in all
situations
• The power consumption of the LVDT is very low
• LVDT is responsive to move away from magnetic fields, thus it constantly needs a
system to keep them from drift magnetic fields.
• It is accomplished that LVDTs are more beneficial as contrasted than any kind of
inductive transducer.
• LVDT gets damaged by temperature as well as vibrations.
 LVDT Applications

• The applications of the LVDT transducer mainly include where

dislocations to be calculated that are ranging from a division of mm to
only some cms.
• The LVDT sensor works as the main transducer, and that changes
dislocation to electrical signal straight.
• This transducer can also work as a secondary transducer.
• LVDT is used to measure the weight, force and also pressure
• Some of these transducers are used to calculate the pressure and load
• LVDT’s are mostly used in industries as well as servomechanisms.
• Other applications like power turbines, hydraulics, automation,
aircraft, and satellites
•  
 Strain Gauges

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the

direction of applied load to the original length of an element.
The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore,
we can say,
• ΔR/R α ε;
• ΔR/R = G ε
• where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as
gauge factor.
• In general, the value of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and
the
• resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.
 construction of a gauge
• The basic construction of a gauge has an insulating
flexible backing to support a metallic foil structure.
This metallic coil is glued to a thin backing called a
carrier, and the entire setup is fixed to an object
using a suitable adhesive. As the object is deformed
due to force, pressure, weight, tension, etc., the 
electrical resistance of foil changes. A 
Wheatstone bridge measures the change in
resistivity, which is related to strain through a
quantity known as Gauge Factor.
 Working of gauge
• Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in
resistance as per
• It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as
• shown in Figure 2.2.3. These foils are made of Constantan alloy
(coppernickel
• 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a backing material plastic
• (ployimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain
gauges are
• secured to the workpiece by using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate
cement Eastman
• 910 SL.
 Working of gauge
• As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external
loading, the resistance of strain gauge element changes. This change in
resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance bridge as

• In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

• R2/ R1 = Rx / R3
• where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is
balancing/adjustable
resistor, R1 and R3 are known constant value resistors. The measured
deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is calibrated against
changeing resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage
across nodesA and B equal to zero
 Applications of strain gauges

• Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis
on machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial
stress fatigue testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration

• measurement, torque measurement, bending and deflection

measurement,compression and tension measurement and strain
measurement.

• Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotives. In particular, they are employed for force measurement in
machine tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in
aerospace vehicles.
 Capacitive element based sensor

• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is

primarily used to measure the linear displacements
from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair
forming one capacitor and the lower pair another.
The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so
that the plate separation changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement
working
 working
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given
by, C = εr εo A / d
• where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric
between the plates,
• εo permittivity of free space, A area of overlap
between two plates and d the plate separation.
• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom
one due to the movement of the element /workpiece
of which displacement is to be measured, separation in
between the plate changes.
 working
• This can be given as,
• C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
• C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)
• When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge,
then the resulting out-of-balance voltage would be in
proportional to displacement x.
• Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor. The
approach of the object towards the sensor plate is used for
induction of change in plate separation.
• This changes the capacitance which is used to detect the
object
Applications of capacitive element sensors
• Feed hopper level monitoring
• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications o to measure shape errors in the part being
produced o to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various
machine tools such as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air
bearing spindle by measuring errors in the machine tools themselves
• Assembly line testing o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness
or other design features

to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue

etc.
 Hall EFFECT SENSOR
• The hall effect element is a type of transducer
 usedfor measuring the magnetic
field by converting it into an emf. The direct
measurement of the magnetic field is not
possible. Thus the Hall Effect Transducer is
used. The transducer converts the magnetic
field into an electric quantity which is
easily measured by the analogue and digital
meters.
construction
 working
• Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when
a beam of charge particles passes through a
magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the
current beam is deflected from its straight line path.
Thus one side of the disc will become negatively
charged and the other side will be of positive
charge. This charge separation generates a potential
difference which is the measure of distance of
magnetic field from the disc carrying current.
 working
• The Hall effect element is mainly used for magnetic
measurement and for sensing the current.
• The metal and the semiconductor has the property of
hall effect which depends on the densities and the
mobility of the electrons.
• Consider the hall effect element shown in the figure
below. The current supply through the lead 1 and 2
and the output is obtained from the strip 3 and 4. The
lead 3 and 4 are at same potential when no field is
applied across the strip.
 woring
• When the magnetic field is applied to the
strip, the output voltage develops across the
output leads 3 and 4. The develops voltage is
directly proportional to the strength of the
material.
• The output voltage is, 
 working
• here I is the current in ampere and the B is the
flux densities in Wb/m2
• The current and magnetic field strength both
can be measured with the help of the output
voltages. The hall effect EMF is very small in
conductors because of which it is difficult to
measure. But semiconductors like germanium
produces large EMF which is easily measured
by the moving coil instrument.
 apllications
• Magnetic to Electric Transducer
• Measurement of Displacement 
•  Measurement of Current 
• Measurement of Power
 Eddy current sensor

• Eddy current sensors are primarily used for displacement

and position measurement of electrically conductive
targets.
• They are generally used for measuring ferromagnetic and
non-ferromagnetic materials.
• They are suitable for applications in harsh industrial
environments due to their superior tolerance for oil, dirt,
dust, moisture and magnetic interference fields. Available
in miniature and sub-miniature models, they can also be
used for measurement in a space where area is restricted.
Eddy current sensor
 working
• Eddy current sensor operates based on the
inductive eddy-current principle. It measures
the distance based on the extraction of energy
from an oscillating circuit, which is required to
generate eddy current in an electrically-
conductive materials.
• .
working
 working
• When the sensing coil is supplied with an
alternating current, it causes a magnetic field to
form around the coil. If an electrically
conducting material is placed in this field, eddy
current field is induced according to the
Faraday’s induction law. When the object
moves, it causes the change in the impedance of
the coil, which is proportional to the change in
the distance between the sensor and the target
Advantages of eddy current sensor
• Eddy current sensors have superior temperature stability and
resistance towards pressure, temperature, dirt and oil. Capable of
operating at pressure up to 4000 bar, they are one of the best wear-
free, non-contact sensors for measuring displacement and position in
harsh industrial environment.
• The sensors are also capable of measuring at high speed up to 100
kilo Samples per second. The sensor head can also be customized
based on specific customer requests to fit in different applications.
The sensors are generally miniature in size and therefore, are suitable
for measuring in an area where access is restricted. These sensors are
also low-cost and can be used in high-volume OEM applications.
• Potential applications for eddy current sensor
 applications
• Potential applications for eddy current sensor
• Due to its resistance and stability to measure under extreme environment,
eddy current sensors are used in a wide range of industrial applications.
Some examples include:
• Measure vibrations of actuators in steel galvanising plants
• Cylinder movements in an internal combustion engine
• Measure thickness of sheet metals in roller gap
• Measure movement of hydraulic cylinders
• Used in airplanes to measure movement of door lock switches and landing
gear flaps
• To browse the full range of our eddy current sensors, please visit this page.
•  
 Temperature sensor
• Temperature conveys the state of a
mechanical system in terms of expansion or
contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change
in electrical resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs.
Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips,
thermocouples, thermistors are widely used in
monitoring of manufacturing processes such
as casting, molding, metal cutting etc.
Bimetallic strips
 bimetallic strips
• Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in
controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains
two different metal strips bonded together.
The metals have different coefficients of
expansion. On heating the strips bend into
curved strips with the metal with higher
coefficient of expansion on the outside of the
curve
 bimetallic strips
• shows a typical arrangement of a bimetallic
strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the
strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer
proximity of the small magnet and further
touches. Then the electric circuit completes
and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic
strips help to protect the desired application
from heating above the pre-set value of
temperature.
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)

• RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes
due to change in its temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance
•
increases and follows a linear relationship as shown in Figure 2.5.2. The
correlation is
• Rt = R0 (1 + αT) (2.5.1)
•  
• where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the
temperature at 0⁰C and α is the constant for the metal termed as
temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually made to have
a resistance of 100 Ω at 0
• °C
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs
• It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone
bridge. The element and the connection leads are
insulated and protected by a sheath
• As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil
changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.RTDs
are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil.
They are generally made of metals such as platinum,
nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a
high-temperature glass adhesive in a ceramic tube is used
to measure the temperature in a metal furnace
 applications
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
 Thermistors
• Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in
resistance with increasing temperature. The
material used in thermistor is generally a
semiconductor material such as a sintered
metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides,
chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and
nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic
containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other
compounds.
 Thermistors
• As the temperature of semiconductor material
increases the number of electrons able to
move about increases which results in more
current in the material and reduced
resistance. Thermistors are rugged and small
in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear
response characteristics
Thermistors
 Thermistors
• Thermistors are available in the form of a bead
(pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure 2.5.4
shows the construction of a bead type
thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension
from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or
glass material. The bead is connected to an
electric circuit through two leads. To protect
from the environment, the leads are
contained in a stainless steel tube.
 applications
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature
inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and
processing
• industry equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as
toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouple works on the fact that when a
junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to
temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821),
when two wires composed of dissimilar
metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, then there is a continuous
current which flows in the thermoelectric
circuit
 Thermocouple
• shows the schematic of thermocouple circuit.
The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck
voltage) is a function of junction temperature
and composition of two metals. It is given by,
• ΔVAB = α ΔT (2.5.2)
• where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the
constant of proportionality
Thermocouple
 Thermocouple
• Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10%
chromium)–Alumel (95% nickel, 2%
manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are
used in the manufacture of a thermocouple.
• These two metals are jointed together, one
end within constent temp box. Other end
connected with heat source
 Applications of Thermocouples

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel

making process
•
Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g.
chemical production and petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and
smelting process in the steel, iron and aluminum industry
•  
 light sensor
• A light sensor is a device that is used to detect
light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/photoresistor and photo
diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications
 Photoresistor
• Photoresistor is also called as light dependent
resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident
light intensity. It is made of a high resistance
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide
(CdS). The resistance of a CdS photoresistor
varies inversely to the amount of light incident
upon it
construction
 Photoresistor
• The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic
substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a
resin material. The sensitive coil electrodes
are connected to the control system though
lead wires
 Photoresistor
• Photoresistor follows the principle of
photoconductivity which results from the
generation of mobile carriers when photons
are absorbed by the semiconductor material.
• On incidence of high intensity light on the
electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil
decreases which will be used further to
generate the appropriate signal by the
microprocessor via lead wires
 Photoresistor
• Photoresistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for
control, safety, amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and
measurement.

• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to

automatically control the brightness of a screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensor
technology
• The light sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be
programmed to have a specific reaction if a certain amount of light is
detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
 Photodiodes
• Photodiodes are one of the types of photo
detector, which convert light into either
current or voltage. These are regular
semiconductor diodes except that they may
be either exposed to detect vacuum UV or X-
rays or packaged with an opening or optical
fiber connection to allow light to reach the
sensitive part of the device
construction
symbol
 Photo diodes
• It is constructed from single crystal silicon wafers. It
is a p-n junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It
is very thin and formed by thermal diffusion or ion
implantation of doping material such as boron.
Depletion region is narrow and is sandwiched
between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon.
Light irradiates at front surface, anode, while the
back surface is cathode. The incidence of light on
anode generates a flow of electron across the p-n
junction which is the measure of light intensity.
 Photo diodes
• Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light
into an electric current. It is made of Silicon. It consists of a
shallow diffused p-n junction,
•
normally a p-on-n configuration. When photons of energy
greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of silicon) fall on the device,
they are absorbed and electron- hole pairs are created. The
depth at which the photons are absorbed depends upon their
energy. The lower the energy of the photons, the deeper they
are absorbed. Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When
the minority carriers reach the junction, they are swept across
by the electric field and an electric current establishes
 Photo diodes
• Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-
focus, Photographic Flash Control
• Industry
– Bar Code Scanners
– Light Pens
– Copiers - Density of Toner
• Safety Equipment
– Smoke Detectors
– Flame Monitors
– Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
– Intruder Alert - Security System
• Automotive
• Communications