Semantic Change

vs.
Semantic Development
Change vs. Development

Change of meaning is the process of the

emergence of a new meaning instead of the
already existing one.

Development of meaning is the process of

the retain of the already existing semantic
structure with some new meaning(s) added.

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Change of meaning. Metaphor and
metonymy.
▶Different kinds of changes in a nation's social life, in its
culture, knowledge, technology, arts lead to gaps
appearing in the vocabulary which beg to be filled.
Linguistically speaking, the development of new
meanings, and also a complete change of meaning, may
be caused through the influence of other words, mostly
of synonyms. All cases of development or change of
meaning are based on some association between the
words.
Transference

The process of development of a new meaning

(or a change of meaning) is traditionally termed
transference.

It is very important to note that in any case of

semantic change it is not the meaning but the
word that is being transferred from one referent
onto another. The result of such a transference
is the appearance of a new meaning.
Transference
There are 2 types of transference depending on the two
types of logical associations:
1. linguistic metaphor = Transference Based on
Resemblance (Similarity).
2. linguistic metonymy = Transference Based on
Contiguity.
 Transference Based on
Resemblance (Similarity)
A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects
due to their outward similarity. (for ex: The noun “eye” has
one of its meanings as a “hole in the end of a needle”, which
also developed through transference based on resemblance).
In general, metaphorical change of meaning is often observed
in idiomatic compounds. In transference based on
resemblance an association may be built not only between two
physical objects, but also between a concrete object and an
abstract concept. The meanings formed through this type of
transference are frequently found in the informal strata of the
vocabulary, especially in slang (nut, onion (= head), saucers
(= eyes), hoofs (= feet)).
 Transference Based on Contiguity (Associations)
Linguistic metonymy = Transference Based on Contiguity. The association is based upon subtle psychological
links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with much difficulty.
The two objects:
1) may be associated together because they often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is
easily accompanied by the image of the other;
2) they may be associated on the principle of cause and effect, of common function, of some material and an
object which is made of it.
a) For ex: The Old English adjective «glad» meant "bright, shining - (it was applied to the sun, to gold and
precious stones, to shining armour).
b) the later meaning "joyful" developed on the basis of the usual association of light with joy)
c) The “foot of a bed” is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed, but the “foot of a mountain”
got its name by another association: the foot of a mountain is its lowest part, so that the association here is
founded on common position).
d) The meaning of the noun “hand” realised in the context «hand of a clock» (watch) originates from the
main meaning of this noun "part of human body". It also developed due to the association of the common
function).
e) The adjective “dull” developed its meaning "not clear or bright" (as in a dull green colour on the basis of
the former meaning "deficient in eyesight". The association here was obviously that of cause and effect: to
a person with weak eyesight all colours appear pale, and all shapes blurred.
Questions to be explored
▶Why do words develop new meanings?
▶Which are the main reasons for the change
and/or development of meaning?
▶How do words change/develop new
meanings?
▶What is the nature of the very process of
development of new meanings?
Changes and developments
▶ The new or added meaning ▶ The new or added meaning
comprises a broader involves a new quality,
coverage of one and the feature or function
same group, kind, type or referring to the given
category of things, group, kind, type of
phenomena, beings, etc. category of things,
phenomena, beings.

Quantitative Qualitative
 TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

(1) Historical causes. According to historical principle, everything develops

changes, social institutions change in the course of time, the words also change.
Ex.: “car” which goes back to Latin “carfus” which meant a four wheeled
(vehicle) wagon, despite of the lack of resemblance.
(2) Psychological causes. Taboos of various kinds. Words are replaced by other
words, sometimes people do not realize that they use euphemisms.  Ex.: “lady’s
room” instead of the “lavatory”
(3) Linguistic causes. Tendency of a language to borrow a particular
metaphorical development of a word from another language. Metaphor accounts
for a very considerable proportions of semantic changes. Language is full of so-
called fossilized metaphors, which no longer call up the image of an object from
which they were borrowed. 
Ex.: the leaf of a book; hands of a clock; a clock face, etc.
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶ 1. Widening/Extension
▶ => range of meanings of a word increases so that the word
can be used in more contexts than were appropriate before
the change
▶ -dog =>1) specific powerful breed of dog => all breeds or
races of dog
▶ -cupboard => 1) table upon which cups or vessels were
placed, a piece of furniture to display plates  => closet or
cabin with shelves for the keeping cups and dishes =>AE:
small storage cabinet
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶ 2. Narrowing (specialisation, restriction)

▶ => range of meaning is decreased so that a word can be
used appropriately only in fewer contexts than before the
change
▶ *meat => 'food' in general ;
▶ *hound => OE hund 'dog in general' => species of dog
(long eared hunting dog) ;
▶ *wife => OE 'woman' =>'woman of humble rank  or low
employment' => 'married woman,  spouse'   
▶ *girl => ME 'child or young person of either sex' =>'female
child, young woman'
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶ 3. Metaphor
▶-involves relationship of perceived similarity
▶*root (of plant) => > root of plant, root of word, root in
algebra, source
▶*stud => 'good-looking sexy man '(of slang origin)
derived from stud 'a male animal used for breeding
▶*chill => "relax, calm down' of slang origin, original
'to cool'
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶4. Metonymy
▶-inclusion of additional senses which were originally
not present but which are closely associated with
word's original meaning
▶-tea => 'drink' => 'evening meal accompanied by
drinking tea';
▶cheek 'fleshy side of the face below the eye' < OE:
cēace ' jaw, jawbone'
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶5. Synecdoche
▶-kind of metonymy, involves part-to-whole relationship
▶-hand 'hired hand, employed worker';
▶tongue  'language'
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶6. Degeneration / Pejoration

▶-sense of a word takes on a less positive, more negative
evaluation in the minds of the users
▶- knave 'a rogue'  < OE: cnafa ' a youth, a child' >
'servant' ;
▶-silly 'foolish, stupid'  < ME sely 'happy, innocent' <
OE sælig ''blessed, blissful'
▶-disease 'illness' < 'discomfort' (cf. dis+ease)
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶ 7. Elevation /Amelioration
▶ -shifts in the sense of a word in the direction towards a more
positive value in the minds of the users
▶ -pretty < OE: prættig 'crafty, sly'
▶ -knight 'mounted warrior serving a king' 'lesser nobility' <
OE cniht 'boy, servant' >'servant' > 'military servant';
▶ dude 'guy, person' < in 1883 a word of ridicule for 'man who
affects an exaggerated fastidiousness in dress, speech and
deportment', a dandy'
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶8. Taboo replacement and avoidance of obscenity

▶-ass 'long-eared animal related to a horse' => donkey;
▶-cock 'adult male chicken' => rooster,
▶-bloody nose => blood nose/bleeding nose
▶-toilet : WC, bathroom, lavatory, restroom, loo, john
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE

▶9. Hyperbole
▶-shift in meaning due to exaggeration by overstatement
▶-terribly, horribly, awfully   'very'
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE
10. Litotes
- exaggeration by understatement
▶ They do not seem the happiest couple around.
▶ The ice cream was not too bad.
▶ New York is not an ordinary city.
▶ Your comments on politics are not useless.
▶ You are not as young as you used to be.
▶ I cannot disagree with your point of view.
▶ William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all.
▶ He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.
▶ She is not unlike her mother.
▶ Ken Adams is not an ordinary man
▶ A million dollars is not a little amount.
▶ You are not doing badly at all.
▶ Your apartment is not unclean.
TYPES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE
10. Litotes
- exaggeration by understatement
▶ They do not seem THE HAPPIEST couple around.
▶ The ice cream was not too bad.
▶ New York is not an ordinary city.
▶ Your comments on politics are not useless.
▶ You are not as young as you USED TO BE.
▶ I cannot disagree with your point of view.
▶ William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright AT ALL.
▶ He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.
▶ She is not unlike her mother.
▶ Ken Adams is not an ordinary man
▶ A million dollars is not a little amount.
▶ You are not doing badly AT ALL.
▶ Your apartment is not UNCLEAN.
Hyperbole
▶the exaggerated statement which
should not be understood literally
as it expresses an emotional
attitude of a speaker to what he is
speaking about
▶e.g. I haven’t seen you for ages
▶e.g. You’ll be the death for me
Irony
▶the expression of one mening by
words of opposite sense, usually it is
done for the purpose of ridicule
▶e.g. How nice! (when you are angry)
▶e.g. A pretty mess you’ve done of it!
Euphemism
▶referring to something unpleasant by
using milder words and phrases so that a
formerly inoffensive word receives a
disagreeable meaning
▶ e.g. to pass away (to die)
▶ e.g. deceased (dead)
▶ e.g. diseased (mad, crazy)
Taboo
▶the case when it is prohibited
to pronounce a word and it is
replaced by another word or a
word-combination
Litotes
▶expressing the affirmative by
the negative of its contrary
▶e.g. not bad =good
▶e.g. not small = great