The Atom

Atom

• The building block of radiographers

understanding interactions between
ionizing radiation and matter
• Came from the Greek word atomos
which means indivisible
• Smallest part of an element
• The basic component and the smallest
unit of matter
• Basically, it is neutrally charged
Orbits or shell-
Composed of electrons,
which are negatively
charged

Protons and neutrons are collectively known as

nucleons
 3 Subatomic Particles

• Proton
– Positively charged and has an atomic
mass of 1
• Neutron
– No charge or neutrally charged and has
an atomic mass of 1
• Electron
– Negatively charged and the lighthest
among the subatomic particles
Note:

• Atoms combined to form molecules,

molecules combine to form tissues,
tissues combine to form organs, organs
combine to form systems.
• Molecule
– The smallest chemical unit of an
element or compound that can exist
independently.
• Nuclide
– Refers to any atomic specie
Ex. Water Molecule
 TWO (2) FORCES ACTING ON ELECTRONS

• Centrifugal Force
– An outward force away from the center
(nucleus)

• Attractive force
– Attraction between electrons and the
nucleus of atom

The electrons stay on their respective orbits

due to these two forces.
 Two Forces Acting On Nucleus

• Repulsive Force
– Occurs between the protons
• Nuclear force
– Holds an atomic nucleus together due to
neutrons
These 2 forces acting on nucleus are
responsible for confining the nucleons inside
the nucleus as the nuclear force overcomes
repulsive electrostatic force between the
protons.
 Concept Of an Atom

•  
X
Where:
• A – refers to the atomic mass
• Represents the number of nucleons
• Sum of protons and neutrons
• Z – refers to the atomic number
• Represents the number of protons
• Represents the number of electrons
• X – Chemical element
 Concept Of an Atom

•  

X He X C
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

• States that no two electrons in an atom

can be in the same state or configuration
at the same time.
• Exclusion formula – is a formulas used to
determine the maximum number of
electrons per shell or orbit.
2 (n2)
• Where
– 2 is contanst
– n is the number of shell
Problem 1

• Determine the number of shells of the

carbon (C) atom and the number of
electrons on its last shell.
 Solution

•  Carbon is C, where:

o C = chemical symbol of atom

o 12 = atomic mass = number of

nucleons (protons + neutrons)

o 6 = atomic number = number of

protons = number of electrons
 Solution

• Based
  on this figure C you can tell that
there are 6 electrons; now let us
determine the number of shells using
the Pauli Exclusion formula:

• K- shell = 2 electrons
• L- shell = 8 electrons
 Solution

• If we add the electrons of the k shell and

L shell (2+8) they are equal to 10, and if
we only refer to k se;; there are only 2
electrons, since Carbon has 6 electrons,
we can say that carbon has 2 shells (K
and L) where are 2 electrons on the K
shell and only 4 electrons on the L shell
(2+4).
Solution
Problem 2

• Determine the number of shells of the

Cobalt (Co) atom and the number of
electrons on the last shell.

 
Co
 Solution

•   base on the figure Co you can tell that

there are 27 electrons, now let us
dtermine the number of shells using
Pauli Exclusion Formula:

k shell = 2 electrons
L shell = 8 electrons
M shell = 18 electrons
 Solution

• If we total the electrons of the k,l and m

shell (2+8+18), they are equal to 28
since Cobalt has 27 electrons, we can
say that cobalt has 3 shells (k,l and m)
where there are 2 electrons on the k
shell, 8 on the l shell and only 17
electrons on the m shell (2+8+17=27).
 Electron Arrangement

• The number of electrons in the

outermost shell is:
– Equal to its group in the periodic table.
– Determines the valence of an atom.

• The number of the outermost electron

shell is:
– Equal to its period in the periodic
table.
 Electron Arrangement

• The orderly scheme of atomic

progression from smallest to largest
atom is interrupted in the fourth period.
Instead of simply adding electrons to the
next outer shell, electrons are added to
an inner shell. The atoms associated
with this phenomenon are called the
transitional elements.
 Electron Arrangement

• The shell notation of the electron

arrangement of an atom not only
identifies the relative distance of an
electron from the nucleus but also
indicates the relative energy by which
the electron is attached to the nucleus.
Models of Atom

• Dmitri Medeleev (pronounce as

Medeleyef)

– Showed that if the elements are

arranged in order of increasing
atomic mass, repetition of similar
chemical properties occurred.
– Develop the first periodic table
 Models of Atom

• John Dalton

– His model showed that the elements

could be classified as to integral values
of atomic mass
– Elements were composed of identical
atoms acting the same way in a
chemical reaction
– He formulated the hook and eye model.
Models of Atom
Models of Atom

• Joseph John Thompson

– Commonly known as J.J Thompson

– Describe that electrons were an
integral part of all atoms
– His model of the atom has been
described as a plum pudding with the
plums representing the electrons.
Models of Atom
Models of Atom

• Ernest Rutherford

– Introduced the nuclear model which

described the atom as containing a
small dense, positively charge center
surrounded by a negative cloud of
electrons. He called the center of
atom the nucleus.
Models of Atom
Models of Atom

• Neil Bohr

– Improved the Rutherford’s

Description of an atom
– His model was miniature solar system
in which the electrons revolved
around the nucleus in prescribed
orbits or energy level.
Models of Atom
 Electron Binding Energy

• Energy possessed by an electron in their orbits

• Strength in attachment of an electron to its
shell
• Energy required to remove the electron from its
shell

• Note:
– The closer the shell to the nucleus the higher
their binding energy (ex. k shell has higher
binding energy to the nucleus than l shell)
 Basic Forces of Nature
• Gravity
– The weakest of the 4 forces. This
weakness is easily demonstrable- on a
dry day, rub a comb across your shirt to
give it static electricity, then hold it over
a piece of paper on a desk. If you were
successful, the piece of paper lifts off the
desk. It takes an entire planet to keep
the paper on desk, but this force is
easily overcome with everyday materials
employing the electromagnetic force.
Basic Forces of Nature

• Electromagnetism

– Or the electromagnetic force

– It is the second effective strength
next to the strong nuclear force.
Basic Forces of Nature

• The Weak Nuclear force

– One of the less familiar fundamental

forces. It operates only the extremely
short distance scales found in an
atomic nucleus.
– The weak force is responsible for
radioactive decay.
 Basic Forces of Nature

• The strong nuclear force

– It is the other unfamiliar fundamental

force. Like the weak force, its range is
limited to subatomic distances. Its
“duties” are keeping quarks together
inside proton and neutrons and
keeping protons and neutrons inside
atomic nuclei.
 Basic Forces of Nature

• Note:
– The strong force is by far the
strongest among the forces, followed
by the electromagnetic force, the
weak nuclear force, and finally the
extremely feeble gravitational force.
Nuclear Arrangements

– Isotopes
• Atoms that have the same atomic
number but different atomic mass
is called isotopes
– Isobar
• Atomic nuclei that have the same
atomic mass but different atomic
numbers are called isobar.
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements

– Isotone
• Atoms that has the same number
of neutrons but different number
of protons are called isotones
– Isomer
• Atoms that have the same atomic
number and same atomic mass are
called isomer
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements
Characteristics if Various Nuclear Arrangements

Arrangement Atomic Atomic mass Neutron

number number Number

Isotope Same Different Different

Isobar Different Same Different

Isotone Different Different Same

Isomer Same Same Same

The Atom
The Atom

NUCLEUS

ORBIT
OR
SHELL
The Atom
The Atom
ATOM MOLECULES TISSUES

ORGAN SYSTEM

KIDNEY
MOLECULE
 MOLECULE

WATER MOLECULE
COMPOSITION

2 HYDROGEN ATOM
1 OXYGEN ATOM
TWO (2) FORCES ACTING ON ELECTRONS

ATTRACTIVE FORCE
TWO (2) FORCES ACTING ON ELECTRONS

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Two Forces Acting On Nucleus
REPULSIVE FORCE
 Two Forces Acting On Nucleus

NUCLEAR FORCE
 CONCEPT OF AN ATOM

•  
X
Where:
• A – refers to the atomic mass
• Represents the number of nucleons
• Sum of protons and neutrons
• Z – refers to the atomic number
• Represents the number of protons
• Represents the number of electrons
• X – Chemical element
 CONCEPT OF AN ATOM

•  

X He X C
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

• States that no two electrons in an atom

can be in the same state or configuration
at the same time.
• Exclusion formula – is a formulas used to
determine the maximum number of
electrons per shell or orbit.
2 (n2)
• Where
– 2 is contanst
– n is the number of shell
 Electron Arrangement

• The number of electrons in the

outermost shell is:
– Equal to its group in the periodic table.
– Determines the valence of an atom.

• The number of the outermost electron

shell is:
– Equal to its period in the periodic
table.
 GROUPS
1 2 3

1
2
3
PERIOD
 The number of the outermost electron shell is
Equal to its period in the periodic table.

H HE
 The number of the outermost electron shell
is Equal to its period in the periodic table.

Li Be
 The number of electrons in the outermost shell is
Equal to its group in the periodic table.

H Li
 The number of electrons in the outermost shell is
Equal to its group in the periodic table.

Li Na
Models of an atom
Models of an atom
Models of an atom
Models of an atom
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements
Nuclear Arrangements
Composition of the Body
 ATOMIC COMPOSITIONS OF THE BODY

Hydrogen 60%

Oxygen 25.7%

Carbon 10.7%

Nitrogen 2.4%

Calcium 0.2%

Phosphorus 0.1%

Sulfur 0.1%

Trace elements 0.8%

Molecular Composition

• Five principal types of molecules are

found in the body.

• 4 of these molecules proteins, lipids

(fats), carbohydrates (sugars and
starches) and nucleic acids are
macromolecules.
• Macromolecules

– Are very large molecules that

sometimes consist of hundreds of
thousands of atoms.
Water 80%

Protein 15%

Lipids 2%

Carbohydrates 1%

Nucleic acid 1%

Other 1%
• Proteins, lipid and carbohydrates are
principal classes of organic molecule.
• Organic molecule – is a life supporting
molecule and contains carbon.
• Nucleic acid (ex. DNA) is the rarest
molecule and concentrated in the
nucleus of a cell. They are considered
as the most critical and radiosensitive
target molecule.
• Water
– Is the most abundant molecule in
the body and also the simplest.
However it plays a particular role
in delivering energy to the target
molecule.
– 80% of our body composition
– The water molecule exist in both
free and dissociated state. It means
they can bound to other molecules
or not. (they depend on the
situation to maintain homeostasis).
– Homeostasis is the concept of
relative constancy of the internal
environment of the human body.
• Water and carbon dioxide are end
products of catabolism.

• Catabolism – breaking down into smaller

units.
• Anabolism – production of a large
molecule from small
• Metabolism – it means breaking down
into smaller units (catabolism are
collectively termed as metabolism).
Basic example of anabolism
• Proteins
– 15% of molecular composition of the
body
– They provide structure and support
– They also functions as enzymes,
hormones and antibodies
– Composed of a long chain
macromolecules consisting a linear
sequence of amino acids.
– 22 amino acids are used in protein
synthesis

– The generalized formula for a protein is

CnHnOnNnTn3 where the n refers to
the number of atom in each element in
the molecule.
• Enzymes
– Are molecules that are necessary in
small quantities to allow a biochemical
reaction to continue, even though they
do not directly enter into reaction.

• Hormones
– Are molecules that exercise regulatory
control over some body function such as
growth and development.
 – They are secreted by the endocrine
glands (e.g. Pituitary, adrenal, thyroid)

• Antibodies
– Constitute a primary defense
mechanism of the body against
infection and disease.
• Lipids
– Are organise macromolecules composed
of solely of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

– CnHnOn3

– Composed of two kinds of smaller

molecules the glycerol and fatty acids.
– Each lipid molecule is composed of 1
glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
– Presents in all tissues of the body
– They are the structural components of
the cell membrane
– More concentrated under the skin and
serves as a thermal insulator from the
environment.
– Also serves as fuel for the body by
providing energy stores
– More of lipids causes obesity
• Carbohydrates
– Are also called saccharides
– Monosaccharides and disacharides are
sugars.
– They provide fuel for cell metabolism.
– They can be catabolised easily into glucose
for energy.
– Lipids can be catabolised into glucose for
energy when there is no presence or less
quantity of glucose but with great
difficulty.
– The chemical formula a simple sugar
called glucose is C6H12O6.

– Carbohydrate is composed also of carbon,

hydrogen and oxygen and are considered
to watered or hydrated.
• Nucleic acid
– DNA and RNA are the principal nucleic
acid important to humans.

– DNA and RNA are located in the nucleus

of the cell.

– DNA contains hereditary information

representing a cell, if the cell is a germ
cell, it provides information of the
whole individual.
– RNA are found in the cytoplasm but
some are found in the nucleus.

– 2 types of RNA are messenger RNA

and transfer RNA, they distinguished
according to their function.

– Nucleic acids are very large and

extremely complex macromolecules.
• Structure of DNA
– Consist of a backbone composed of
alternating segments of deoxyribose (a
sugar) and phospate.

– For every deoxyribose-phosphate

conjugate formed, a molecule of water
is removed.
– Attach to each deoxyribose molecule is one of the 4 nitrogenous
organic bases: adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine.

– Adenine and guanine are purines

– Cytosine and thymine are pyramidines

– The base of the sugar-phosphate combination is called nucleotide.

– The nucleotide are strung together as one long-chain

macromolecule.
– The side rails of the ladder are the
alternating sugar-phosphate molecules
and rungs of the ladder is consist of bases
joint together by hydrogen bonds.

– The ladder of the DNA is composed of

nitrogenous organic bases.