STANDARDS

• In the science of measurement, a standard is an object,

system, or experiment that bears a defined relationship to a
unit of measurement of a physical quantity.
• Standards are the fundamental reference for a system of
weights and measures, against which all other measuring
devices are compared.

The International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) is

an artifact standard or prototype that is
defined to be exactly one kilogram mass.
Hierarchy of standards
 Primary reference standards
• Primary standards are made to the highest metrological quality
and are the definitive definition or realization of their unit of
measure.
• An example of a primary standard is the
international prototype kilogram (IPK) which is the master
kilogram and the primary mass standard for the
International System of Units (SI). The IPK is a one kilogram mass
of a platinum-iridium alloy maintained by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Sèvres,
France.
 Secondary reference standards

• Secondary reference standards are very close approximations

of primary reference standards.
• For example, major national measuring laboratories such as
the US's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
will hold several "national standard" kilograms, which are
periodically calibrated against the IPK and each other.
 Working standards
• Although the SI definition of the "meter" is based on a
laboratory procedure combining the speed of light and the
duration of a second, a machine shop will have a physical
working standard (gauge blocks for example) that are used
for checking its measuring instruments.
• Working standards and certified reference materials used in
commerce and industry have a traceable relationship to the
secondary and primary standards.
• Working standards are expected to deteriorate, and are no
longer considered traceable to a national standard after a
time period or use count expires.
 Laboratory Standards
• National organizations provide calibration and private
industrial laboratories with items, processes and/or
certification so they can provide certified traceability to
national standards.
• These laboratory standards are kept in controlled conditions
to maintain their precision, and used as a reference for
calibration and creating working standards.
• Sometimes they are (incorrectly) called "secondary
standards" because of their high quality and reference
suitability.
 Traceability
• Traceability is the ability to verify the history, location, or
application of an item by means of documented recorded
identification.
• The term "measurement traceability" is used to refer to an
unbroken chain of comparisons relating an instrument's
measurements to a known standard.
• In many countries, national standards for weights and
measures are maintained by a National Measurement
Institute (NMI) which provides the highest level of standards
for the calibration / measurement traceability infrastructure
in that country.
 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
There are three types of measurement standards: (Standards and their
Evolution)
1.Line Standard
2.End Standard
3.Wavelength Standard

1.Line Standard: According to the line standard, the yard or metre is defined as
the distance between inscribed lines on a bar of metal under certain conditions of
temperature and support.
The metre is defined as 1650763.73 wavelengths of the orange radiation in
vaccum of krypton-86 .
The Yard is defined as 0.9144 metre. This is equivalent to 1509458.35
wavelengths of the same radiation.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
a. The Imperial Standard Yard: It is made of a one-inch square cross section bronze
bar (82% copper, 13% tin, 5% zinc) and is 38 inches long. The bar has a ½ inch
dia* ½ inch deep hole, which are fitted with a 1/10th inch dia gold plug.
The yard is defined as the distance between two central transverse lines on the plugs
when the temperature of the bar is constant at 62°F and the bar is supported on
rollers in a specified manner to prevent flexure, the distance being taken at the point
midway between the two longitudinal lines at 62°F for occasional comparison.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
b. International Standard Prototype Metre: The metre is the distance
between the centre portions of two lines engraved on the polished surface
of a bar (prototype) made up of platinum (90%) – iridium (10%) alloy
having a unique crossection.
• This bar is kept at 0°C and under normal atmospheric pressure.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
International Standard Prototype Metre

• According to this standard, the length of

one meter is defined as the straight line
distance, at 0°C between the centre
portion of a pure platinum-iridium alloy of
a total length of 1000-mm and having a
web cross section.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
2. End Standard: End standards, in the form of the bars and slip gauges are
used for all practical measurements in workshops and general use in
precision engineering in standard laboratories. In case of vernier calipers
and micrometers, the job is held between the jaws/anvils of the measuring
instrument and the corresponding reading is noted, while a length bar and
slip gauges are used to set the required length to be used as a reference
dimension.
a. End Bar : End bars made of steel having cylindrical cross section of 22.2
mm diameter with the faces lapped and hardened at the ends are available
in sets of various lengths.
End bars are made from high-carbon chromium steel, ensuring that faces
are hardened to 64RC.The bars have a round section of 30mm for greater
stability. Both the ends are threaded, precision lapped to meet requirements
of finish, flatness and gauge length. These are available up to 500 mm in
grades 0,1,2 in an 8-piece set.

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 Gauge block or Slip Gauge
• Gauge blocks (also known as gage blocks, Johansson gauges, slip
gauges, or Jo blocks) are a system for producing precision lengths.
• The individual gauge block is a metal or ceramic block that has been
precision ground and lapped to a specific thickness.
• Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks with a range of standard
lengths. In use, the blocks are stacked to make up a desired length.
• An important feature of gauge blocks is that they can be joined
together with very little dimensional uncertainty. The blocks are
joined by a sliding process called wringing, which causes their
ultraflat surfaces to cling together.
• A small number of gauge blocks can be used to create accurate
lengths within a wide range. By using 3 blocks from a set of 30
blocks, one may create any of the 1000 lengths from 3.000 to
3.999 mm in 0.001 mm steps
• They are used as a reference for the calibration of measuring
equipment used in machine shops, such as micrometers, sine bars,
calipers, and dial indicators (when used in an inspection role).
Gauge blocks are the main means of length standardization used by
industry.
 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
b. Slip Gauges: Slip gauges are practical end standards and can be used in linear
measurements in many ways. Slip Gauges are rectangular blocks of hardened and
stabilized high-grade cast steel or the ceramic compound zirconium oxide (ZrO 2)
having dimensions of 9mm wide, 30 to 35 mm long cross section.
The length of a slip gauge is strictly the dimension which it measures – in some slip
gauges it is the shortest dimension and in the larger slip gauges it is the longest.
Slip Gauges are made according to the following standards:

Metric gauge block set

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
Measuring faces of slip gauges are forced and wrung against each other so that
the gauges stick together. This is known as wringing of slip gauges.

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 Wringing
• Wringing is the process of sliding two blocks together so that
their faces lightly bond.
• Because of their ultraflat surfaces, when wrung, gauge blocks
adhere to each other tightly. Properly wrung blocks may
withstand a 75 lbf (330 N) pull.
 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
Wavelength Standards: Line and end standards are physical standards and are
made up of materials that can change their size with temperature and other
environmental conditions. The correct lab conditions are required to be maintained
so that the length standard remains unchanged.
High sensitivity length measurements are therefore very important because of high
accuracy.
The CGPM (Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures) adopted a definition of the
metre in terms of the wavelength in vaccum of the radiation corresponding to a
transition between specified energy levels of the krypton-86 atom.
In 1960, orange radiation of the isotope krypton-86 used in a hot-cathode discharge
lamp maintained at a temperature of 63K, was selected to define the metre. The
metre was then defined as equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the red-orange
radiation of the krypton isotope-86 gas.
1 metre = 1650763.73 wavelengths and,
I Yard = 0.9144 metre = 0.9144 * 1650763.73 wavelengths
= 1509458.3 wavelengths
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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
Wavelength Standards: Material standards are liable to destruction and their
dimensions change slightly with time. But with the monochromatic light we have
the advantage of constant wavelength and since the wavelength is not a physical
one, it need not be preserved. This is reproducible standard of length, and the error
of reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 millions. It is because of this
reason that International Standard measures the metre in terms of wavelength of
krypton 86.

Advantages of wavelength standards

•Not influenced by variation in environment, temperature etc.
•No need to store it under security and thus no fear of destroyed.
•Easily available to all.
•Higher accuracy
•It is easily reproducible. (lecture 3 finish)

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 Speed of light standard

• The shortcomings of the krypton standard were

demonstrated by the measurement of the wavelength of the
light from a methane-stabilized helium–neon laser (λ ≈
3.39 µm).
• The krypton line was found to be asymmetrical, so different
wavelengths could be found for the laser light depending on
which point on the krypton line was taken for reference.
• The asymmetry also affected the precision to which the
wavelengths could be measured.
• Hence it was superseded by laser and finally following is the
definition
The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1  ⁄   299,792,458 of a second.