METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENT

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 METROLOGY

• Metrology is derived from two Greek word, one is metro which means
measurement and other is logy which means science. Metrology is basically
the science of measurement.

• Metrology is field of knowledge concerned with measurement and includes

both theoretical and practical problems with reference to measurement.

• Metrology is the name given to the science of pure measurement.

• Engineering Metrology is restricted to measurements of length & angle.

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 TYPES OF METROLOGY

Metrology is separated into following categories with different levels of

complexity and accuracy:

1.Scientific Metrology
2.Industrial Metrology
3.Legal Metrology
4.Fundamental Metrology

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 TYPES OF METROLOGY

Scientific Metrology deals with the organization and development of

measurement standards and with their maintenance.
Industrial Metrology has to ensure the adequate functioning of measuring
instruments used in industry as well as in production and testing processes.
Legal Metrology is concerned with the accuracy of measurements where these
have influence on the transparency of economical transactions, and health and
safety, e.g., the volume and quality of petrol purchased or the weight and
quality of prepackaged flour. It seeks to protect public against inaccuracy in
trade.
Fundamental Metrology may be described as scientific metrology,
supplemented by those parts of legal and industrial metrology that require
scientific competence. It signifies the highest level of accuracy in the field of
metrology.

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Saturday 28 August 2021 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Saturday 28 August 2021 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
 METROLOGICAL TERMINOLOGIES
Accuracy without Precision
Accuracy & Precision

Precision without Accuracy No Precision &

No Accuracy
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 METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
Measurement is a set of operations done with the aim of determining the value of a
quantity which can be measured by various methods of measurements depending
upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
The various methods of measurement are:
Direct Method: This is the simplest method of measurement in which the value of
the quantity to be measured is obtained directly without any calculations, e.g.,
measurements by scales, vernier calipers, micrometers etc. It involves contact or
non-contact type of inspections. Human insensitiveness can affect the accuracy of
measurement.
Indirect Method: The value of the quantity to be measured is obtained by
measuring other quantities, which are frequently related with the required value,
e.g., angle measurement by sine bar, density calculation by measuring mass and
dimensions for calculating volume.
Absolute Method: This is also called fundamental method and is based on the
measurement of the base quantities used to define a particular quantity, e.g.,
measuring a quantity (length) directly in accordance with the definition of that
quantity.
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 MEASURING INSTRUMENT AND THEIR SELECTION
A measuring instrument is any device that may be used to obtain a dimensional
or angular measurement. The important characteristics which govern the
selection of instruments are measuring range, accuracy and precision.
Some instruments, such as a steel rule, may be used to read directly; others like
caliper, are used for transforming or comparing dimensions.
Transformation of a measurable quantity into the required information is a
function of measuring instruments.
Generally, measuring instruments are classified as follows:
i.On the basis of function
a.Length-measuring instruments
b.Angle measuring instruments
c.Surface-roughness measuring instruments
d.Geometrical-form-checking instruments

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 MEASURING INSTRUMENT AND THEIR SELECTION
ii. On the basis of accuracy
a. Most accurate instruments
b. Moderate accurate instruments
c. Below moderate accurate instruments
iii. On the basis of precision
a. Precision measuring instruments
b. Non-precision measuring instruments

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
• The error in measurement is the difference between the measured value
and the true value of the measuring dimension. (Lecture 2)
• Error may be absolute or relative.
Error in Measurement = Measured Value – True Value
• The actual value or true value is a theoretical size of dimension free from
any error of measurement which helps to examine the errors in a
measurement system that lead to uncertainties.
• The errors in measurements are classified into two testing types – one,
which should not occur and can be eliminated by careful work and
attention; and the other, which is inherent in the measuring process/
system.
• Therefore, the errors are either controllable or random in occurrence.

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

Absolute Error
It is divided into two types:
True Absolute Error: It is defined as the algebraic difference between the
result of measurement and the conventional true value of the quantity
measured.
Apparent Absolute Error: It is defined as the algebraic difference between the
arithmetic mean and one of the results of measurement when a series of
measurements are made.
Absolute Error (EA)
Absolute Error = |Actual Value – Approximate Value|

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Relative Error
It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison used for
calculation of the absolute error.

Percentile Error (EP) Relative error is expressed in percentage form

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Static Error
These are the result of physical nature of the various components of a
measuring system, i.e. intrinsic imperfection or limitations of
apparatus/instrument.
Static error may occur due to existence of either characteristic errors or reading
errors or environmental errors, as the environmental effect and other external
factors influence the operating capabilities of an instrument or inspection
procedure.
a.Reading Error: These type of errors apply exclusively to instruments. These
errors may be the result of parallax, optical resolution/readability, and
interpolation.
Parallax error creeps in when the line of sight is not perpendicular to the
measuring scale.
b.Alignment Error: This occurs if the checking of an instrument is not
correctly aligned with the direction of the desired measurement.
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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

c. Characteristic Error: It is the deviation of the output of the measuring

system from the theoretical predicted performance or from the nominal
performance specifications. Linearity, repeatability, and resolution error
are the examples of characteristic error.
d. Environmental Error: These are the errors arising from the effect of the
surrounding temperature, pressure and humidity on the measuring system.
Magnetic and electric fields, nuclear radiations, vibration or shocks may
also lead to errors. Environmental error can be controlled by controlling the
atmospheric factors.
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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Loading Error If the datum surface on which part to be measured is located is
not flat or if foreign particles like dirt or chips get entrapped between
datum surface and workpiece then an error will be introduced in taking
readings.
Poor contact between the working gauge or the instrument and workpiece
causes an error.
Instrument Loading error is the difference between the value of the measurand
before and after the measuring system is connected or contacted for
measurement.

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Dynamic Error It is caused by time variation in the measurand. It is the result
of incapability of the system to respond reliably to time-varying measurement.
Inertia, damping, friction or other physical constraints in sensing or readout or
the display system are the main causes of dynamic errors.
Controllable Error: These are controllable both in magnitude and sense.
These type of errors are regularly repetitive in nature and are of similar form .
It includes following:
a.Calibration Error: These are caused due to the variation in the calibrated
scale from its normal indicated value.
b.Stylus Pressure Error: The too small or too large pressure applied on a
workpiece while measuring, causes stylus pressure.
c.Avoidable Error: These errors occurs due to parallax, non-alignment of
workpiece centres, incorrect location of measuring instrument, and
misalignment of the centre line of a workpiece.

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 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Random Error: Random errors are accidental, non-consistent in nature and as
they occur randomly, they cannot be eliminated since no definite cause can be
located.
Small variations in the position of setting standards and the workpiece, slight
displacement of lever joints in instruments are likely sources of this type of
error.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
There are three types of measurement standards: (Standards and their
Evolution)
1.Line Standard
2.End Standard
3.Wavelength Standard

1.Line Standard: According to the line standard, the yard or metre is defined as
the distance between inscribed lines on a bar of metal under certain conditions of
temperature and support.
The metre is defined as 1650763.73 wavelengths of the orange radiation in
vaccum of krypton-86 .
The Yard is defined as 0.9144 metre. This is equivalent to 1509458.35
wavelengths of the same radiation.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
a. The Imperial Standard Yard: It is made of a one-inch square cross section bronze
bar (82% copper, 13% tin, 5% zinc) and is 38 inches long. The bar has a ½ inch
dia* ½ inch deep hole, which are fitted with a 1/10th inch dia gold plug.
The yard is defined as the distance between two central transverse lines on the plugs
when the temperature of the bar is constant at 62°F and the bar is supported on
rollers in a specified manner to prevent flexure, the distance being taken at the point
midway between the two longitudinal lines at 62°F for occasional comparison.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
b. International Standard Prototype Metre: The metre is the distance
between the centre portions of two lines engraved on the polished surface
of a bar (prototype) made up of platinum (90%) – iridium (10%) alloy
having a unique crossection.
• This bar is kept at 0°C and under normal atmospheric pressure.
• The metric standard, when in use, is supported at two points by two rollers
of at least one-cm diameter, symmetrically situated in the horizontal plane,
and 589 mm apart.
• According to this standard, the length of one meter is defined as the
straight line distance, at 0°C between the centre portion of a pure platinum-
iridium alloy of a total length of 1000-mm and having a web cross section.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
International Standard Prototype Metre

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
2. End Standard: End standards, in the form of the bars and slip gauges are
used for all practical measurements in workshops and general use in
precision engineering in standard laboratories. In case of vernier calipers
and micrometers, the job is held between the jaws/anvils of the measuring
instrument and the corresponding reading is noted, while a length bar and
slip gauges are used to set the required length to be used as a reference
dimension.
a. End Bar : End bars made of steel having cylindrical cross section of 22.2
mm diameter with the faces lapped and hardened at the ends are available
in sets of various lengths.
End bars are made from high-carbon chromium steel, ensuring that faces
are hardened to 64RC.The bars have a round section of 30mm for greater
stability. Both the ends are threaded, precision lapped to meet requirements
of finish, flatness and gauge length. These are available up to 500 mm in
grades 0,1,2 in an 8-piece set.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
b. Slip Gauges: Slip gauges are practical end standards and can be used in linear
measurements in many ways. Slip Gauges are rectangular blocks of hardened and
stabilized high-grade cast steel or the ceramic compound zirconium oxide (ZrO 2)
having dimensions of 9mm wide, 30 to 35 mm long cross section.
The length of a slip gauge is strictly the dimension which it measures – in some slip
gauges it is the shortest dimension and in the larger slip gauges it is the longest.
Slip Gauges are made according to the following standards:
IS 2984-1981, Metric BS-4311:1968, Imperial BS.888.1950, DIN: 861-1988, JIS B
7506-1978.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
According to accuracy, slip gauges are classified as follows:

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
Measuring faces of slip gauges are forced and wrung against each other so that
the gauges stick together. This is known as wringing of slip gauges.

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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
Wavelength Standards: Line and end standards are physical standards and are
made up of materials that can change their size with temperature and other
environmental conditions. The correct lab conditions are required to be maintained
so that the length standard remains unchanged.
High sensitivity length measurements are therefore very important because of high
accuracy.
The CGPM (Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures) adopted a definition of the
metre in terms of the wavelength in vaccum of the radiation corresponding to a
transition between specified energy levels of the krypton-86 atom.
In 1960, orange radiation of the isotope krypton-86 used in a hot-cathode discharge
lamp maintained at a temperature of 63K, was selected to define the metre. The
metre was then defined as equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths of the red-orange
radiation of the krypton isotope-86 gas.
1 metre = 1650763.73 wavelengths and,
I Yard = 0.9144 metre = 0.9144 * 1650763.73 wavelengths
= 1509458.3 wavelengths
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 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
Wavelength Standards: Material standards are liable to destruction and their
dimensions change slightly with time. But with the monochromatic light we have
the advantage of constant wavelength and since the wavelength is not a physical
one, it need not be preserved. This is reproducible standard of length, and the error
of reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 millions. It is because of this
reason that International Standard measures the metre in terms of wavelength of
krypton 86.

Advantages of wavelength standards

•Not influenced by variation in environment, temperature etc.
•No need to store it under security and thus no fear of destroyed.
•Easily available to all.
•Higher accuracy
•It is easily reproducible. (lecture 3 finish)

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