Scouring

• The loom state cotton fabric contains about 8-12 percent natural
impurities of the total weight of the fiber.
• These impurities mainly consists of waxes, proteins, pectic substances
and mineral matters.
• In addition to this, the mechanically held impurities called motes are
present containing seed coat fragments, aborted seeds and leaves
that cling to fibers.
• Apart from these, loom state fabric is also contaminated with oils
such as machine oils, tars, greases etc.
Scouring

Pectic Substances Motes

Scouring, Objectives
• Scouring is a purifying treatment of textiles, the objective of scouring is to
reduce the amount of impurities sufficiently to obtain level and reproducible
results in dyeing and finishing operations.
• Saponify fats and waxes
• Break down of proteins and pectins
• Complex formation of minerals substances containing Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu. So that
they do not react with saponification products
• Increase the absorptive capacity
• Improve the degree of whiteness and reduce the seed husk contents
• Extraction of reactions by-products.
Scouring, Agents used for Scouring
Scouring, Agents used for Scouring
• The type of scouring agent generally depends on the kind of fibers i.e.
cotton or wool; fabric type i.e. woven or knitted, thick or thin;
texturized or non-texturized and the extent of impurities present in
the fiber.
• For example, silk and wool dissolved by alkali, whereas acetate and
triacetate are converted back to their original cellulose form.
Scouring, Mechanism of Removal of
Impurities
• Fats and waxes are removed by the action of alkali and surface active agents, in some
cases use of solvent and surfactants mixtures may be necessary. Lipases are also
used for scouring purpose. Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fat.
• Pectins and related substances are solubilized by the action of alkali, usually NaOH,
which also acts as swelling agent to facilitate removal.
• Minerals and heavy metals are removed by producing more soluble salts e.g. acids
demineralization or by use of sequestering agents.
• Amino acids or proteins are solubilized by producing corresponding sodium salt.
• Modern lubricants/mineral oils usually contains their own self emulsification system,
i.e. knitting yarn in cotton weft knitted fabrics contains lubricants which replace the
size on woven fabrics.
Scouring, Mechanism of Removal of Impurities

Natural fats, oils and lubricants tallow are mostly esters usually in the form of
triglycerides. After saponification, glycerol is water soluble and soap is efficient
surfactant or emulsifier. If wax is not removed, non uniform absorption of dyes
and finishing agents will take place. Actually removal of wax determines the
absorbency after scouring. Also alkali removes pectic acid, pectic acid is insoluble
in water but soluble in alkaline solution
 Scouring, Mechanism of Removal of
Impurities

Scum formation because of Ca+2, Mg+2,

Fe+3 metal ions
Sequestering agents or chelating
agents are negatively charged and are
capable of forming strong ring
structure with the metal ions present
in hard water and in pectins. This
prevents film and scum formation;
precipitation of hard water. Advantages
are better levelness and more
brilliance in dyeing process, lower
peroxide consumption, high degree of
whiteness, and no catalytic damage
during peroxide bleaching.
 Scouring, Mechanism of Removal of
Impurities, Emulsification
A surfactant is a
substance, which reduces
the surface tension of the
water, e.g. water surface
tension 72 dynes/cm to
30 dynes/cm at less than
0.1 % concentration. Only
non-ionic and anionic
surfactants are used in
scouring. This helps in
wetting as well as
dispersion and
The droplet of emulsified greases separate
suspension of soil and
from the fiber due to the net repulsion of
oils.
the surfactant head groups on the dirt
particles and the fiber surface, resulting in
complete and lasting separation
Scouring, Mechanism of Removal of
Impurities, Emulsification
• An emulsion is a dispersion of a liquid in another liquid in which it is not soluble.
• When two immiscible liquids are mixed and shaken aggressively one of them break
into small droplets and gets dispersed in other, however, such dispersion is
thermodynamically unstable, hence liquids again go to two distinct continuous phase.
• To stabilize such dispersions, emulsifiers are used. Emulsifier is surfactants whose
molecules cover the surface of two droplets. One portion of the surfactant molecule
becomes compatible with one phase and other part with second phase. This way of
dispersion of one liquid phase in another becomes stable, which is known as emulsion.
• Removal of hydrophobic impurities from textiles using surfactant in a aqueous medium
by emulsification is a common mode. Agitation helps in removal of impurities.
Scouring, Mechanism of Removal of
Impurities, Solubilization using a Solvent
• Using a solvent to dissolve away the hydrophobic soil. For example
common dry cleaning uses organic solvents to remove hydrophobic
greasy or oily soils from textile materials. At industrial scale, this has
safety and logistical problems related to handling of large amount of
organic solvents.
• Since the amount of hydrophobic impurity present on a textile
substrate may be very small one can choose another approach .A
solvent may be emulsified in an aqueous medium. The resultant
emulsion, which may contain only a small amount of solvent may be
used to remove the oily soil.
Scouring, Scouring with NaOH
• In this process cotton fabric boiled with a solution of 10 to 20 g/l (3-6 %
o.w.f.) caustic soda in kier with a liquor ratio 3:1.
• In continuous scouring about 30 g/l of caustic soda is added in the pad-bath
with a liquor pick-up of about 100 %.
• In continuous processes it is possible to decrease the time of post
impregnation steaming to about 2 min at a temperature of 130-135 C with
NaOH solution of 40-60 g/l.
• The rate of saponification of waxes increase as the temperature (pressure)
of boiling increase, rate of chemical reaction is doubled with each 10 C rise
in temperature and saponification of oil is increased sixteen times from 60
to 100 C.
Scouring, Scouring with NaOH

• Cotton is not degraded by boiling with sodium hydroxide solution up

to a concentration of 20 g/l in the absence of air.
• If colored yarns are present in fabric, soda ash (sod. Carbonate) is
used because of its low pH.
• Combination of soda ash and caustic soda can also be used.
Scouring, Scouring of Polyester and Nylon
• Synthetic fibers generally do not contain naturally occurring impurities like
natural fibers. However spin finishes, knitting weaving oils, antistatic agents
are added to improve physical as well as mechanical properties. Other are
dirt etc.
• For polyester weak and low concentration of alkalis are used at low
temperature.
• Special precaution is necessary when polyester is scoured with strong alkali
at higher temperatures and care has to be taken not to hydrolyze the fiber.
• Nylons are scoured with mild alkali and detergents. Generally non-ionic
detergents are used in scouring of nylons.
Scouring with Enzymes
Why scouring with Enzymes?
• NaOH is not only harsh on the fabric but also on the environment
• Chemical Handling
• Excessive Rinsing
• Effluent Concern
• Possible fiber damage
Scouring with Enzymes
How do Enzymes work?
Pectinase
• Pectin act like glue between fibers core and the waxes.
• It can be removed with alkaline pectate lyase (pectinase), making the
residual waxes easy to eradicate in the subsequent hot rinse.
• It degrades the pectin from the primary cell wall of cotton without
degrading the cotton itself.
Lipases
• They are used for the removal of natural fatty substances from cotton
Proteases
• Catalyse the hydrolysis of proteins
Scouring, Assessment
• Drop/Spot Test
• In a pipette a solution of 0.1 percent direct or congo red is taken and droplet of
solution put on the different places of the fabric and absorption time is observed.
• The standard time for the absorption of one drop of solution is 0.6 to 1 sec.
• Weight Loss
• Tensile strength (reduction indicates fiber damage during process)
• Cuprammonium fluidity Test
• To check the degree of degradation/polymerization.
• Fibers/fabric is dissolved into Cuprammonium hydroxide. High viscosity means
high degree of polymerization and low damage.
Questions
Bleaching
• The aim of bleaching is to transfer colored substances (Flavone pigments)
in the fibers into uncolored substances and/or to make them removable
by the washing.
• By that the following effects should be reached
• The degree of whiteness shall be high and even enough for the intend use of the
textile goods.
• The textile good shall not be damaged if possible
• The degree of whiteness shall be stable in storage
• The absorptive capacity shall be high and uniform
• For achieving this mainly oxidative and rarely reductive bleaching systems
are used.
Bleaching
• Bleaching is important, in case of white, pastel shades, or printed
background, but can be optional in case of dark shades.
• Dyeing an unbleached fabric in pastel shades might mask the
brightness of applied color.
• Bleaching also removes residual impurities left by other pretreatment
processes like desizing, scouring etc.
• In case of cotton, the motes or the seed coat fragments are visible as
specks of brown or black colors on fabric. The color of these motes is
also destroyed by bleaching.
Bleaching, Oxidative
• Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
• Sodium peroxide Na2O2
• Peracetic acid CH3-CO-O-OH
• Potassium permanganate KMnO4
• Ozone O3
• Sodium Chlorite NaClO2
• Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl
Bleaching, Reductive
• Sodium Sulphite Na2SO3
• Sodium bisulphite NaHSO3
• Sodium dithionite Na2S2O4
• Oxalic acid HOOC-COOH
Bleaching, Auxiliaries
• Auxiliaries, facilitate and accelerate bleaching and provide protection against
fiber damage.
• Wetting agents: Sulphonated oils, fatty alcohol sulphates, fatty acid
condensates
• Stabilizers: Very important for the bleaching with hydrogen peroxide, suitable
products are sodium silicate (water glass), phosphates, organic complexing
agents, etc.
• Activators for bleaching with sodium chlorite: Inorganic and organic acids,
phosphates, nitrates etc.
• Corrosions inhibitors for sodium chlorite bleaching: fatty acids condensates,
nitrates and phosphates.
Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O2)
• It is today the most frequently used bleaching agent for textiles.
• It is a chemical compound that has mostly an oxidative effect.
• It is a weak acid, that has only a low bleaching power.
• If alkali is added to an aqueous hydrogen peroxide solution, perhydroxyl anions
(HOO-) are formed.
• From perhydroxi-anions (HOO-), superperoxide radical (.O-O-) is formed, which is
active bleaching agent.
• In addition to the bleaching agent and alkali (as activator) the bath consists always
washing-off and wetting agents for improving the process and a stabilizer.
• Stabilization of peroxide is important for an even bleaching effect and preventing
the fiber damage.
Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O2)
Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O2)
Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O2),
Process Parameters
• Operation of peroxide bleaching depends on
• Nature and quality of goods to be bleached
• The amount of bleaching required
• Equipment available
• Following general variables are considered to be important
• Effect of pH
• At pH 1-3 peroxide is stable, but at 11.5 to 13. it has least stability
• Bleaching take place around pH 10.5 to 10.8
Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O2),
Process Parameters
• Effect of Temperature
• Normally bleaching is carried out at 90-100 C, but temperature can be
increased to 120 C in case of a pressurized equipment.
• Increase in temperature results in decrease process time. This means rate of
bleaching increases with increase in temperature.
• But at higher temperatures, cellulose is more prone to decompose
• Effect of Time
• The time is inversely proportional to the temperature of the bleaching bath.
• Cotton may be bleached in open kiers by circulating heated hydrogen
peroxide solution (88-95 C) for 6 to 10 hours.
Bleaching with Hydrogen Peroxide (H 2O2),
Process Parameters
• Effect of concentration of liquor
• Concentration of peroxide depend on liquor ratio, temperature, and class of
fibers.
• In kier boiling 2-4 percent (o.w.f) peroxide is sufficient. In continuous process,
fabrics saturated with bleach bath containing 1-2 percent peroxide.
• Very high concentration of peroxide may damage the fiber.
Bleaching with Sodium chlorite (NaClO2)
• Sodium chlorite bleaching is fiber protective, rapid bleaching effect,
usable for CO, CV, PAN and other synthetic fibers and blends with
cotton.
• Sodium chlorite is chlorine containing bleaching agent, it remains
stable at high pH and has to be activated with acids or acid liberating
agents to bring down pH, when bleaching take place.
• Acid generators (activators) include sodium chloroacetate, triethanol
amine, ammonium persulphate etc.
• One disadvantage of chlorite bleaching is formation of toxic and
corrosive gas ClO2 (even stainless steel) at pH below 6.
Bleaching with Sodium chlorite (NaClO2)
• Advantages
• Can be used for both cotton and synthetic fibers, suitable for fibers, which are
unstable at alkaline pH.
• As it takes place at acidic pH, hardness of water and metal ions do not impair
the process.
• Cause low or no cellulose damage.
• Disadvantages
• More expensive than NaOCl or H2O2.
• It can not used to bleach silk and wool (pink coloration).
• ClO2 corrosive and toxic gas.
• It takes place at acidic pH, so removal of wax is not satisfactory.
Questions
Mercerization
• Mercerization was discovered by John Mercer in England and the process is
named after him: Mercerizing.
• Mercerization is a process of impregnating the textile material with a
concentrated solution of cold NaOH for some time with or without tension,
and subsequently rinsing it.
• Generally mercerization is carried out at 18-24 % NaOH concentration and
low temperature 15-20 C with a suitable wetting agent.
• Mercerization increases the absorbency, dye-uptake, lustre and tensile
strength of the fibers.
• Cellulose undergoes chemical, physio-chemical and structural modifications
with caustic soda.
Mercerization
• Mechanism:
• Mercerization causes swelling in fiber. Swelling causes cross-section to become
rounder, loss of convolution and detwisting leading to more lustrous surface.
Gradual change in cross
section of cotton fiber
on mercerization

Stage 1-5 swelling of cross section, stage 6 and 7 removal of NaOH from fiber
• Mercerization causes opening of fiber structure, this increases amorphous content
due to de-crystallization
• Higher number of –OH groups available as compared to un-mercerized cotton
• Higher moisture regain, dye-uptake and reactivity.
Mercerization
Increase in tensile strength
• Removal of convolutions results in removal of weak spots at the point of reversal.
• Fiber have more uniform, circular and smooth cross section after mercerization.
• Fiber alignment along fiber axis is better in case of tension mercerization as
compared to slack mercerization.
Shrinkage
• When fiber swells, the fiber shrinks in length, in absence of tension.
Effect of Tension
• Tension mercerization results in more lustrous product as compared to a slack
mercerization.
Mercerization
• Neutralization after mercerization
• Normally with a suitable acid
• Test method to determine degree of mercerization
• Although there are many methods to do this, one quantitative test based on
the ability of mercerized cotton to absorb barium hydroxide is widely used.
Mercerized cotton can absorb more Barium hydroxide than un-mercerized
cotton and this is the basis for this test. 
• For completely mercerized cotton the value of BAN is around 155 and for
semi mercerized cotton it varies in between 115 and 130.
Mercerization
• Mercerization machines
• Pad chain mercerizing machine: Saturator (NaOH)-padder (sequeeze)-airing
rollers (time for swelling)-saturator (NaOH)-padder-stenter clips/chain –
sprinkling of fabric with water (reduction of NaOH conc. below 60 g/l)-washer
for rinsing and neutralization.
• Chainless mercerizing machine

Clip chain mercerizing machine for woven fabrics

Questions
Colorants
• Difference between dyes and pigments
• Both are colorants
• In terms of their chemical composition, one primary distinction between dyes and
pigments is that pigments are insoluble in water as well as most other solvents.
• In general dyes are either water soluble or soluble in another type of solvent.
• Dyes require some sort of physical or chemical reaction in order for dyeing process to
occur.
• Unlike dyes, dyeing with pigments requires a binding or dispersion agent in which
pigment itself is suspended.
• Before coloring process pigments are usually ground as finely as possible, resulting in a
powder of pigments particles of few microns.
• Since coloring process with dyes occurs by means of physical and chemical reaction, it is
necessary to understand dyes at molecular level.
Dyestuff
• Dyes are colored, unsaturated organic chemical compounds.
• Capable to dye substrate with sufficiently fastness.
• Distinguish itself from the pigments, which require a binder.
• Color is caused by the interaction of an π-electron system (dye chromophore)
with light.
• Chromophore gives a dye its particular color, by absorbing a light of particular
wavelength. They can represent as C, N, O and S can have alternative single and
double bonds.
• Auxochrome are responsible for dye solubility and cohesiveness, and is attached
to a chromophore which modifies the ability of that chromophre to absorb light,
e.g –OH, -NH2, -CHO
Dyestuff
Classification of dyes
• Dyes can be classified in several ways, each class has a very unique chemistry,
structure and particular way of bonding. Some dyes can react chemically with
the substrates forming strong bonds in the process, and others can be held by
physical forces. Some of the prominent ways of classification are given below
• Natural / Synthetic
• Organic / Inorganic
• By area and method of application
• Chemical classification - Based on the nature of their respective chromophores.
• According to the dyeing methods
• Anionic (e.g. for Protein fibre)
• Direct (e.g. for Cellulose)
• Disperse (e.g. Polyester, Polyamide fibres)
Classification of dyes
• US International Trade Commission has advocated the most popular
classification of dyes. which are given below:
Group Application
Direct Cotton, cellulosic and blended fibres
Vat dyes Cotton, cellulosic and blended fibres
Sulphur Cotton, cellulosic fibre
Organic pigments Cotton, cellulosic, blended fabric, paper
Reactive Cellulosic fibre and fabric
Disperse dyes Synthetic fibres
Acid Dyes Wool, silk, paper, synthetic fibres, leather
Azoic Printing Inks and Pigments
Basic Silk, wool, cotton
Questions