MINERALS

BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCKS

MINERALS
Minerals reflect the way atoms are arranged in rocks
Mineralogy is primarily a tool for understanding the Earth
Minerals are fundamental to the Earth Sciences
• Environmental Sciences
• Geochemistry
• Geophysics
• Petrology
WHY DO WE STUDY
MINERALS?
For a material to be considered to be a mineral it must meet a
certain criteria:
• Naturally Occurring
• Inorganic
• Homogeneous Solid
• Definite chemical composition
• Ordered internal structure
NATURALLY OCCURRING
A mineral must be formed by a natural process
Synthetic products are not considered minerals

Example:
Despite of its low cost, durability, and close visual likeness
to diamond, synthetic cubic zirconia is not a mineral.
INORGANIC
Minerals are formed by inorganic process
Inorganic pertains to lacking compounds that contain organic
carbon

Examples:
Coal is not a mineral because it is sedimentary rock formed from
dead plant matter.
Charcoal is not a mineral because it is produced by heating of wood
in the absence of oxygen.
HOMOGENEOUS SOLID
Minerals consists of a single solid substance that cannot be physically
subdivided into simpler chemical compounds
As such gases and liquids (such as Hg in room temperature) are excluded

Example:
Ice from the refrigerator is not a mineral because it is not naturally
occurring.
Ice from glaciers is a mineral.
DEFINITE CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
Atoms or group of atoms must occur in specific ratios
Though the chemical composition is definite, it is not fixed because atoms can
substitute for one another.

Example:
Olivine – (Fe, Mg)2SiO4
Forsterite – Mg2SiO4
Fayalite – Fe2SiO4
Note: Atomic substitution allows Fe and/or Mg to occupy the cation site (same atomic radii and charge).
ORDERLY CRYSTALLINE
STRUCTURE
Minerals are crystalline as they have a 3-D
periodic arrays of precise geometric
arrangement of atoms.

Example:
Diamond (C) – octahedral habit
Graphite (C) - sheets
ORDERLY CRYSTALLINE
STRUCTURE
MINERALOID GLASS
A mineral-like substance that does Amorphous or has no long-range
not demonstrate crystallinity, and order or is non crystalline
do not fit the criteria for both glass
and mineral Example:
Obsidian (volcanic glass)
Examples:
Amber (organic)
Pearl (organic)
Opal (amorphous silica)
ATOMS
Atoms are the smallest components in nature that
have the properties of a given substance

Composed of
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
The nucleus is located at the center
surrounded by electrons

In chemistry, electrons move around the

nucleus in regions called the principal shells,
which have associated energy levels.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of
protons but different neutrons.
The term isotope comes from the Greek for “equal
place”
Many isotopes are not stable, thus the nuclei change
through a random process called radioactive decay.
The unstable isotopes radiate energy and emit
particles, at rates that are measurable known as half-
life.
 ISOTOPES
Example of isotopes are Hydrogen, Deuterium and Tritium

Photo taken using the Creative

Commons license of Wikimedia
IONS
When an atom either gains or lose electrons, it gains a charge.

Anion Cation
• The atom gains electrons • The atom loses electrons
• Negative charge • Positive charge
CHEMICAL BONDING
Atoms bond together to fill its outermost shell to
achieve a stable electron configuration

Every atom has the tendency to fill its outermost shell

with the maximum number it can hold.

Elements such as Krypton and Xenon (noble gases)

are inert gases and will not bond with other electrons
due to their outer shells being filled.
OCTET RULE
Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are
surrounded by eight valence electrons.

But, there are exceptions to this rule.

IONIC BONDING
Where an atom transfers an electron to another atom.
The atom receiving the electron becomes an anion while the atom
giving away its electron becomes a cation
As such the two are oppositely charged and would attract one another.
Photo taken from
Lutgens et. al.
Essentials of Geology

Ionic bonding in Halite (rock salt)

Notice in the figure, the Na atom gives an electron and
becomes a Na cation
 COVALENT BONDS
Where elements share electrons thus
forming a bond between two atoms.

This is considered to be very strong bond

between atoms.

Photo taken from

Lutgens et. al.
Essentials of Geology
 METALLIC BONDING
This is where electrons are also shared, but unlike in
covalent bonds all of the electrons are shared by the
atoms.

You can imagine that the electrons are freely moving

around the different atoms thus forming a bond.

This allows metals to have very high conductivity.

Photo taken from

Lutgens et. al.
Essentials of Geology
HOW DO MINERALS
FORM?
There are five ways to form minerals
CRYSTALLIZATION
OR SOLIDIFICATION
Minerals can form from the
solidification of a melt,
which is where a liquid forms
a solid

Photo taken from

http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/igneous.htm
 PRECIPITATION FROM SOLUTION
The atoms, molecules, or ions dissolved in a solution bond together
and separate out of the solution

Photo taken from chem.libretexts.org

 SOLID-STATE
DIFFUSION
Movement of atoms or ions
through a solid to arrange into
a new crystal structure, but
this is a process that takes
very slowly
Photo taken from maphttps://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat
/kjemi/KJM5120/v05/undervisningsmateriale/KJM5120-Ch5-
Diffusion.pdf
BIOMINERALIZATIO
N
When living organisms cause
minerals to precipitate either
within or on their bodies, or
immediately adjacent to their
bodies.

Note: pearl is not a mineral

PRECIPITATE FROM
GAS
Normally occurs around volcanic
vents or around geysers (e.g., sulfur)
This is due to the volcanic gases or
steam enter the atmosphere and cool
quickly causing the formation of
crystals

Photo taken from USGS.gov

WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN
FORMING MINERALS?
CRYSTALLIZATION
The process through which atoms
or compounds that are in a liquid
or gas state are arranged into an
orderly solid state:

It has two steps: nucleation and

crystal growth
NUCLEATION
Root word = “nucleus”
The initial grouping of a few atoms
Starts the process of crystal growth
Heat keeps magma in a liquid state causing atoms to vibrate strongly causing it to
be unable to form bonds
However, if a solid is present in the liquid it acts as a nucleation seed.
CRYSTAL GROWTH
Crystal would grow as atoms are deposited on the surface of the nucleation seed
Atoms would arrange themselves in order, because as the atoms attach themselves
the crystal grows but maintains the same orientation.
As they grow, their crystal shape depend on the geometry of their internal structure.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF MINERALS
 CRYSTAL
FORM
The outward appearance of a mineral
It is the expression of the internal ordered atomic
arrangement of the mineral

EUHEDRAL
When the crystal faces are well-formed

SUBHEDRAL
When the mineral is partly bounded by crystal faces and partly by
irregular surfaces

ANHEDRAL
Lacks crystal faces and may show either a rounded or irregular
surface

Photo taken from

Saphiraminerals.com
CRYSTAL FORM
Photos of minerals with differing crystal forms

A – Euhedral
B – Anhedral
C – Subhedral

Photos taken from

Guide to Thin Section Microscopy
Raith, Raase, & Reinhardt
 LUSTER
The way light interacts with the
surface of the mineral.

There are two distinct types of

luster:
Metallic
Nonmetallic

Photo taken from

http://www.exceptionalminerals.com/saleroom7.htm
TYPES OF LUSTER
METALLIC LUSTER
The luster where it has the
appearance of a polished
metal surface
Reflects light like metals
NON-METALLIC
LUSTER
Varies widely in appearance
ranging from a highly
polished glass surface to a
dull earthy-like appearance
SUBMETALLIC
LUSTER
Intermediate between
metallic and non-metallic
 ADAMANTINE PEARLY
Appears to have the luster of a Appears as a mother-of-pearl
diamond. with iridescent sheen
VITREOUS SILKY
Appears as a piece of polished Appears as a skein of silk or a
DIFFERENT NON- glass piece of satin

METALLIC RESINOUS GREASY

LUSTERS Appears as a piece of resin Appears as if covered with a
thin layer of oil

EARTHY
Appears dull
 Photo taken from
http://skywalker.cochise.edu/wellerr/mineralid/lecture.htm

DIAPHANEIT
Yway a mineral transmits light
The

Transparent – transmits light and

through which an object may be seen

Translucent –transmits light but does

not show a clear image

Opaque – impervious to light even on

the thin edges of the mineral
 Photo taken from
patch.com
Fluorite-The World’s Most Colorful Mineral

COLOR
Color is related to the chemistry
and structure of the mineral.

Color can be a diagnostic tool, but

not always.
STREAK
Streak is the color of the finely powdered mineral. This is normally done by rubbing
the mineral on an unglazed porcelain plate called a streak plate.

It is a better diagnostic property than color because it is more constant.

Photo taken under a Creative Commons

license from Wikimedia
 CLEAVAGE
The tendency of minerals to break
along parallel planes.

Occurs due to the mineral having

weaker bonds in specific directions.

Photo taken from

dakotamatrix.com
CLEAVAGE
Perfect – breaks easily and if the
resulting surface is flat and reflects light
well
Good – less continuous and may have
some irregularities
Poor – difficult to see and the surfaces
are not well developed
Fair – reflects properties between poor
and good
Photo taken from Klein & Dutrow
Manual of Mineral Science 23rd Edition
Photo taken from
Lutgens et. al.
Essentials of Geology

CLEAVAGE
Cleavage can be described based on the
number of cleavage directions
identified.

Can also be described based on quality

as perfect, good, poor, and fair
CLEAVAGE
Augite (Pyroxene)
Number of cleavage planes: 2
Angle between planes: ~90°

Hornblende (Amphibole)
Number of cleavage planes: 2
Angle between planes: 56° and
124° (not at 90°)
 FRACTURE
The breakage of minerals when they do
not yield along cleavage or parting
planes.

Can be distinctive and diagnostic.

Photo taken from

https://www.sandatlas.org/conchoidal-fracture/
 CONCHOIDAL FIBROUS OR
Produces the smooth curved SPLINTERY
ridges resembling the interior Pieces that are fibrous or as
of a shell splinters

TYPES OF
FRACTURES
HACKLY UNEVENE OR
Jagged and sharp edges IRREGULAR
Produces rough and irregular
surfaces
 Photo taken from
Lutgens et. al.
Essentials of Geology

HARDNESS
The resistance of a smooth surface of a mineral
by scratching.

Determined by observing if a mineral is

scratched by a material with a known hardness.

Mohs Scale of Hardness (H = 1 to 10)

Photo taken from
https://www.tes.com/lessons/BWdpm5N2Ec3ceQ/malleability

TENACITY
The resistance of a mineral to breaking
or deforming.

Relates to its internal bonding or

structure.
 BRITTLE SECTILE
Breaks and powders easily Can be cut into thin shavings with
a knife

DUCTILE MALLEABLE
Can be drawn into a wire Can be hammered into thin sheets
TYPES OF
TENACITY FLEXIBLE
Can be hammered into thin sheets
ELASTIC
After being bent, will resume to
its original position upon release
of pressure
 Photo taken from https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/420312577716199929/?lp=true

DENSITY AND
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 Density is defined by mass over volume

While Specific Gravity is the number that

expresses the ratio of a weight of substance and
the weight of an equal volume of water at 4oC.
Photos taken from
Lutgens et. al.
Essentials of Geology

OTHER MINERAL
PROPERTIES
Certain minerals have other distinctive properties.

Halite – distinctive salty taste

Magnetite – magnetic; strongly attracted to magnets
Talc – soapy feel
Calcite – effervesces or reacts with HCl or hydrochloric acid also
displays the optical property known as double refraction
MINERA
L
CLASSIFICATI
ON
MINERAL
CLASSIFICATION
Mineralogists separate the 4,000 known minerals into a small number of groups.
These aid in organizing the information regarding the different minerals.

Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848)

• Analyzed minerals and noted the chemical similarities between them
• With the aid of his students, was able to establish that most minerals can be
classified by specifying the principal anion or anionic group within the
mineral.
 SILICATES SULFATES
Fundamental concept of most Consists of a metal cation
silicates is the SiO44- anionic bonded to the SO42- anionic
group group.

OXIDES SULFIDES
Consists of metal cations A metal cation bonded to a
DIFFERENT NON- bonded to oxygen anions sulfide anion (S2-)

METALLIC HALIDES CARBONATES

LUSTERS Anion in halides is a halogen
(Chloride, Fluoride, and etc.)
A metal cation bonded to the
molecule CO32-.

NATIVE ELEMENTS
Consists of pure masses of a single
element
(metal, semimetal, nonmetal).
 COMMON
ROCK- FORMING
MINERALS
 SILICATES
The silicate minerals or the silicates make up over 95% of
the continental crust and almost 100% of the oceanic
crust.

They also dominate the composition of the Earth’s mantle.

As such they are the most common minerals on Earth.

The basic building block of the silicates is the silicon-oxygen

tetrahedron.
Photo taken from
Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology
 ISOLATED
TETRAHEDRA
The simplest silicate structure where it
consists of isolated or independent
tetrahedra.

The mineral olivine with the formula

(Mg,Fe)2SiO4

Another mineral with this structure is

garnet.

Photo taken from

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology
 SINGLE CHAIN
STRUCTURE
The variety of silicates is due to the SiO4 tetrahedra
to link with one another in a phenomenon called
polymerization.

This is achieved by sharing electrons.

In the single-chain structure they share 2 oxygen.

Example are pyroxenes.

Photo taken from

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology
 DOUBLE CHAIN
STRUCTURE
In the double chain structure, the tetrahedra share either
2 oxygen or three oxygens.

Thus the two chains are linked.

This is observed in the Amphibole group where minerals

such as Hornblende belong.

Photo taken from

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology
 SHEET
STRUCTURE
In the sheet structure, there are three
oxygen anions being shared by the
tetrahedra.

This common among the Mica group with

minerals such as Biotite and Muscovite.

Photo taken from

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology
 THREE-
DIMENSIONAL
FRAMEWORK
STRUCTURE
In this structure, all four oxygen anions are
being shared forming a 3D structure.

This is notable in the Feldspar group with

minerals such as Orthoclase and
Plagioclase.

This is also notable in Quartz.

Photo taken from

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology
QUARTZ
Quartz is a very common mineral with the
chemical formula SiO2

It has a hardness of 7, no cleavage, but exhibits

conchoidal fracture.

Its non-metallic luster is usually vitreous.

It has many varieties depending on the impurity.

Photo taken from

Saphiraminerals.com
PLAGIOCLASE
Plagioclase is normally white but
sometimes it can be grey.

It has a hardness of 6, with usually

perfect cleavage in two directions.
Its luster is normally non-metallic.

Diagnostically striated.

Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?

curid=38771
 ORTHOCLASE
A potassium feldspar and is normally pink or
cream colored. It could also be colorless to
white, greenish white or grayish yellow

It has a hardness of 6 and its 2-directional

cleavage are perpendicular to each other.

Photo taken from

http://skywalker.cochise.edu/wellerr/miner
al/orthoclase/orthoclaseL.htm
PYROXENE
A dark-colored mineral usually black to green,
sometimes it is also clear.

Its hardness ranges from 5 to 6.

Its cleavage is prominent in 2-directions and intersects

at almost 90 degrees.

Notably, when it is cut at the base it forms an octagon,

while being cut lengthwise it shows a stubby or
chubby rectangle form.

Photo taken from

http://www.johnbetts-
fineminerals.com/jhbnyc/mineralmu
seum/picshow.php?id=30006
HORNBLENDE
Hornblende is normally black but sometimes dark
green to dark brown.

It has a hardness ranging from 5 to 6.

Its cleavage is prominent in 2 directions that

intersect almost at 120 degrees.

When you cut hornblende along the basal section

it should show a hexagon, but lengthwise it is a
thin rectangle shape.

Photo taken from

https://e-rocks.com/item/mch516071/hornblende
CALCITE
Calcite is normally clear to white. Can
also be gray, yellow, or green.
It also displays its prominent rhombic
form as well as its 3 directional cleavage.
It has a hardness of 3.
Its diagnostic feature is the phenomenon
of “double refraction” as well as that it
effervesces with HCl

Photo taken from

http://www.crystalage.com/online_st
ore/xxxxx.cfm
What are gemstones?
A gem is defined to be a mineral which, by cutting and polishing possesses
sufficient beauty to be used in jewelry or personal adornment.

Beauty is the most important attribute of gemstones.

Gemstones should also be durable as they are to be used personal use.

As such, they should be able to resist scratching and abrasion. If the stone is
scratched, it would hamper its beauty.
Types of Gem Cuts
There are two basic gem cuts

CABOCHON
• Smooth-domed top and most commonly a flat base

FACETED
• Bounded by polished plane surfaces, which have different names depending
on the position
CABOCHON

FACETED

Photo taken from

Stephen Marshak
Essentials of Geology