Introduction to

Semiconductor
 Electronic Materials
• The goal of electronic materials is to
generate and control the flow of an
electrical current.
• Electronic materials include:
1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows
electrical current flow
2. Insulators: have high resistance which
suppresses electrical current flow
3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical
current flow
 Conductors
• Good conductors have low resistance so
electrons flow through them with ease.
• Best element conductors include:
– Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel
• Alloys are also good conductors:
– Brass & steel
• Good conductors can also be liquid:
– Salt water
 Conductor Atomic Structure
• The atomic structure of
good conductors usually
includes only one electron
in their outer shell.
– It is called a valence electron.
– It is easily striped from the
atom, producing current
flow.
Copper
Atom
 Insulators
• Insulators have a high resistance so current does
not flow in them.
• Good insulators include:
– Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood
• Most insulators are compounds of several
elements.
• The atoms are tightly bound to one another so
electrons are difficult to strip away for current
flow.
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials that essentially can
be conditioned to act as good conductors, or
good insulators, or any thing in between.
• Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and
germanium are semiconductors.
• Silicon is the best and most widely used
semiconductor.
Semiconductor Elements
Semiconductor Valence Orbit

• The main characteristic

of a semiconductor
element is that it has
four electrons in its
outer or valence orbit.
 Crystal Lattice Structure

• The unique capability of

semiconductor atoms is
their ability to link
together to form a
physical structure called
a crystal lattice.
• The atoms link together
with one another sharing
their outer electrons.
• These links are called
covalent bonds. 2D Crystal Lattice
Structure
3D Crystal Lattice Structure
 Semiconductors can be Insulators
• If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon,
the crystal lattice structure forms an excellent insulator
since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not
free for current flow.
• Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as
intrinsic.
• Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are
tightly bound together with one another, the electrons
are difficult to dislodge for current flow.
• Silicon in this form is a great insulator.
• Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
 Doping
• To make the semiconductor conduct electricity,
other atoms called impurities must be added.
• “Impurities” are different elements.
• This process is called doping.

A presentation of eSyst.org
 Semiconductors can be Conductors

• An impurity, or element
like arsenic, has 5 valence
electrons.
• Adding arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons
to bond with the
neighboring silicon atoms.
• The one electron left over
for each arsenic atom
becomes available to
conduct current flow.
 Resistance Effects of Doping
• If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping,
there will be lots of extra electrons so the
resistance of the material will be low and
current will flow freely.
• If you use only a few boron atoms, there will
be fewer free electrons so the resistance will
be high and less current will flow.
• By controlling the doping amount, virtually
any resistance can be achieved.
 Another Way to Dope
• You can also dope a semiconductor
material with an atom such as
boron that has only 3 valence
electrons.
• The 3 electrons in the outer orbit
do form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor atoms
as before. But one electron is
missing from the bond.
• This place where a fourth electron
should be is referred to as a hole.
• The hole assumes a positive charge
so it can attract electrons from
some other source.
• Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to support
current flow.
 Types of Semiconductor Materials
• The silicon doped with extra electrons is called
an “N type” semiconductor.
– “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an
electron.
• Silicon doped with material missing electrons
that produce locations called holes is called “P
type” semiconductor.
– “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
 Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors
• The DC voltage source has a
positive terminal that attracts
the free electrons in the
semiconductor and pulls
them away from their atoms
leaving the atoms charged
positively.
• Electrons from the negative
terminal of the supply enter
the semiconductor material
and are attracted by the
positive charge of the atoms
missing one of their
electrons.
 Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors
• Electrons from the negative
supply terminal are attracted
to the positive holes and fill
them.
• The positive terminal of the
supply pulls the electrons
from the holes leaving the
holes to attract more
electrons.
• Inside the semiconductor
current flow is actually by the
movement of the holes from
positive to negative.
Group IIIA – Acceptors
Group VA – Donors
 In Summary
• In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent
insulator.
• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.
• Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to
add or subtract electrons.
• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.
• A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons
with vacancies called holes.
• The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the
lower the resistance.
• By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor
material can be made as conductive as desired.
Hybrid orbital in Silicon

ψhyb

Valence Electron
 Band Gap Energy
• In semiconductors and insulators, electrons
 are confined to a number of bands of energy,
and forbidden from other regions.
• The term "band gap" refers to the energy
difference between the top of the valence
band and the bottom of the conduction band.
• Electrons are able to jump from one band to
another. However, in order for an electron to
jump from a valence band to a conduction
band, it requires a specific minimum amount
of energy for the transition. The required
energy differs with different materials.
 a) A simplified two-dimensional illustration of a Si atom with four hybrid orbitals hyb. Each
orbital has one electron.
b) A simplified two-dimensional view of a region of the Si crystal showing covalent bonds.
c) The energy band diagram at absolute zero of temperature.
Fig 5.1
(a) Energy band diagram.
(b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume).
(c) Fermi-Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state).
(d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of electrons per unit energy
per unit volume). The area under nE(E) versus E is the electron concentration.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.7
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Electron Concentration in CB
 (Ec  E F ) 
n  Nc exp  
 kT 
n = electron concentration in the CB, Nc = effective density of states at the CB
edge, Ec = conduction band edge, EF = Fermi energy, k = Boltzmann constant, T =
temperature

Effective Density of States at CB Edge

2m *e kT 3 / 2
Nc  2
 

 h 2

Nc = effective density of states at the CB edge, me* = effective mass of the electron
in the CB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature, h = Planck’s constant
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (©
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 Hole Concentration in VB
 (EF  Ev ) 
p  Nv exp 
 kT 
p = hole concentration in the VB, Nv = effective density of states at the VB edge, EF
= Fermi energy, Ev = valence band edge, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature

Effective Density of States at VB Edge

2m kT  * 3/ 2

Nv  2
 

h
 h  2

Nv = effective density of states at the VB edge, mh* = effective mass of a hole in the
VB, k = Boltzmann constant, T = temperature, h = Planck’s constant
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (©
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
 ) Below Ts, the electron concentration is controlled by the ionization of the donors.
) Between Ts and Ti, the electron concentration is equal to the concentration of donors since
hey would all have ionized.
) At high temperatures, thermally generated electrons from the VB exceed the number of
ectrons from ionized donors and the semiconductor behaves as if intrinsic.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.14
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
•The number of electrons in the conduction
band > the number of holes in the valence
band.
•Hence, the probability of occupation of
energy levels by the electrons in the
conduction band > the probability of
occupation of energy levels by the holes in the
valence band.
•The Fermi level in the n-type semiconductor
lies close to the conduction band.
 Diodes
Electronic devices created by bringing
together a p-type and n-type region within the
same semiconductor lattice. Used for
rectifiers, LED etc
 Diodes
It is represented by the following symbol,
where the arrow indicates the direction of
positive current flow.
 Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
• Forward Bias : Connect positive of the Diode
to positive of supply…negative of Diode to
negative of supply
• Reverse Bias: Connect positive of the Diode to
negative of supply…negative of diode to
positive of supply.
 Characteristics of Diode
• Diode always conducts in one direction.
• Diodes always conduct current when “Forward
Biased” ( Zero resistance)
• Diodes do not conduct when Reverse Biased
(Infinite resistance)
 What is a transistor?
• A transistor is a 3 terminal electronic device made of
semiconductor material.
• Transistors have many uses, including amplification,
switching, voltage regulation, and the modulation of
signals
 Recall p-n junction
P N N P

W W
+ - + -

Vappl > 0 Vappl < 0

Forward bias, + on P, - on N Reverse bias, + on N, - on P

(Shrink W, Vbi) (Expand W, Vbi)

Allow holes to jump over barrier Remove holes and electrons away
into N region as minority carriers from depletion region

I I

V V
So if we combine these by fusing their terminals…

P N N P

W W
+ - + -
Vappl > 0 Vappl < 0

Holes from P region (“Emitter”) of 1st PN junction

driven by FB of 1st PN junction into central N region (“Base”)

Driven by RB of 2nd PN junction from Base into P region of

2nd junction (“Collector”)

• 1st region FB, 2nd RB

• If we want to worry about holes alone, need P+ on 1 st region

• For holes to be removed by collector, base region must be thin

Bipolar Junction Transistors: Basics

+ -

IE IC
- + IB

IE = IB + IC ………(KCL)

VEC = VEB + VBC ……… (KVL)

 BJT configurations

Biasing the transistor refers to applying voltage to get the transistor to achieve certain
operating conditions.

Common-Base Biasing (CB) : input = VEB & IE

output = VCB & IC

Common-Emitter Biasing (CE): input = VBE & IB

output = VCE & IC
ECE 663
Common-Collector Biasing (CC): input = V &I
Three Types of BJT Biasing
Biasing the transistor refers to applying voltage to get the transistor to
achieve certain operating conditions.

Common-Base Biasing (CB) : input = VEB & IE

output = VCB & IC

Common-Emitter Biasing (CE): input = VBE & IB

output = VCE & IC

Common-Collector Biasing (CC): input = VBC & IB

output = VEC & IE

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE

Spring 2002
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• 3 adjacent regions of doped Si

(each connected to a lead):
– Base. (thin layer,less doped).
– Collector.
– Emitter.
• 2 types of BJT: npn bipolar junction transistor

– npn.
– pnp.
• Most common: npn (focus on
it).

Developed by
pnp bipolar junction transistor
Shockley (1949)
 BJT npn Transistor
• 1 thin layer of p-type, sandwiched between 2 layers of n-type.
• N-type of emitter: more heavily doped than collector.
• With VC>VB>VE:
– Base-Emitter junction forward biased, Base-Collector reverse biased.
– Electrons diffuse from Emitter to Base (from n to p).
– There’s a depletion layer on the Base-Collector junction no flow of e-
allowed.
– BUT the Base is thin and Emitter region is n+ (heavily doped)  electrons have
enough momentum to cross the Base into the Collector.
– The small base current IB controls a large current IC
 BJT characteristics

• Current Gain:
– α is the fraction of electrons that
diffuse across the narrow Base
region
– 1- α is the fraction of electrons
that recombine with holes in the
I C  I E
I B  (1   ) I E
Base region to create base
current
• The current Gain is expressed in
terms of the β (beta) of the IC 
transistor (often called hfe by  
manufacturers). IB 1
• β (beta) is Temperature and
Voltage dependent.
• It can vary a lot among transistors
(common values for signal BJT: 20
- 200).
 npn Common Emitter circuit

• Emitter is grounded.
• Base-Emitter starts to conduct with VBE=0.6V,IC flows and it’s IC=b*IB.
• Increasing IB, VBE slowly increases to 0.7V but IC rises exponentially.
• As IC rises ,voltage drop across RC increases and VCE drops toward ground.
(transistor in saturation, no more linear relation between IC and IB)
The temperature dependence of the electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.15
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
The temperature dependence
of the intrinsic concentration

Fig 5.16
The variation of the drift mobility with dopant concentration in Si for electrons and holes at
300 K.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.19
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Schematic illustration of the temperature dependence of electrical conductivity for a doped
(n-type) semiconductor.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.20
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Illumination is switched on at time t = 0 and then off at t= toff.
The excess minority carrier concentration pn(t) rises exponentially to its steady-state value
with a time constant h. From toff, the excess minority carrier concentration decays
exponentially to its equilibrium value.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.27
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
(a) Arbitrary electron concentration n (x, t) profile in a semiconductor. There is a net diffusion
(flux) of electrons from higher to lower concentrations.
(b) Expanded view of two adjacent sections at x0. There are more electrons crossing x0 coming
From the left (x0-) than coming from the right (x0+)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.29
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
When there is an electric field and also a concentration gradient, charge carriers move both by
diffusion and drift.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.31
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Formation of a Schottky junction between a metal and an n-type semiconductor when
m > n.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.39
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
When a metal with a smaller workfunction than an n-type semiconductor are put into contact,
The resulting junction is an ohmic contact in the sense that it does not limit the current flow.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.43
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Cross section of a typical thermoelectric cooler.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.46
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Typical structure of a commercial thermoelectric cooler.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.47
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Schematic representation of the density of states g(E) vs. energy E for an amorphous
semiconductor and the associated electron wavefunctions for an electron in the extended and
localized states.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (© Fig 5.53
McGraw-Hill, 2005)