Physical Metallurgy

The Periodic Table

 Physical Properties of Metals
1. Tenacity
The property of resisting rupture by traction (by drawing or pulling a
force).

Relative tenacity of metals:

Lead, tin, zinc, gold, silver, platinum, copper, iron and steel.
 
2. Toughness
The property of resisting fracture by bending or torsion
the ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in
the process before fracture. The key to toughness is a good
combination of strength and ductility.

 
3. Malleability
It is the ability of a solid to bend or be hammered into other
shapes without breaking.
Examples of malleable metals are gold (most malleable),
silver, copper, tin, platinum, lead, nickel, zinc and iron.

Gold is well known for its malleability, or its ability to be

shaped into very thin strands without breaking. That is why
artisans are able to shape or manipulate gold whichever way
they want.
4. Welding
is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or
thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. this is often done by melting the
work pieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material(the
weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes
used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.

5. Ductility
is the ability of material, such as steel, to be drawn out into thin wires
or flat sheets without pulling apart or breaking. Materials that are
extremely ductile can be stretched thin without cracking and losing their
strength.

Copper and steel are two metals that have a high ductility and do well
under pressure.
 

 
5. Elasticity

Ability of a deformed material body to return to its original

shape and size when the forces causing deformation are
removed. Most solids show some elastic behaviour, but there
is usually a limit the material's "elastic limit".
Example, steel, though strong, has a low elastic limit
6. Conductivity
a term, which is used to describe the ability of the material
to pass the electric current through it, which is due to the
movement of charged particles or electrons.
Silver, copper, gold, aluminum, iron, steel, brass, bronze,
mercury
 
They are made into wires and various
electrical goods like lamps, etc.
8. Specific Heat

is one physical property of a substance is a measure of the

amount of energy that  will be absorb by it per unit of mass.
Specific heat can be defined as the amount of energy
(measured in joules), needed to raise the temperature of one
gram of the substance through one degree Celsius.
aluminum          0.9025 antimony       0.2072
barium          0.2044 beryllium       1.824 bismuth  
0.1221 cadmium  0.2311 calcium   0.6315
cesium    0.2421 chromium  0.4491
cobalt     0.421 copper         0.3845 gallium 
0.3709 germanium 0.3215 gold             0.129
They are made into heating coils and
cooking instruments like woks and pans.
9.Magnetism
Phenomenon associated with the motion of electric
charges.
This motion can be an electric current in a conductor
or charged particles moving through space, or it can be
the motion of an electron in atomic orbit.
Magnetism is associated with elementary particles,
such as the electron, that have a property called spin.
Kinds of Magnetism
Diamagnetism – a very weak form of magnetism that
is only exhibited in the presence of an external
magnetic field.

Paramagnetism – tendency of the atomic magnetic

dipoles, due to quantum-mechanical spin angular
momentum, in a material that is otherwise non-
magnetic to align with an external magnetic field.
Kinds of Magnetism
Ferromagnetism – a phenomenon by which a material
can exhibit a spontaneous magnetization and is one of
the strongest forms of magnetism.
Antiferromagnetism – also known as ferrimagnetism,
opposite of ferromagnetism;
9. Specific Gravity
is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a
substance to the density (mass of the same unit volume) of a
reference substance.

  Metals Specific Gravity

Aluminum. 2.67
Antimony, cast.. 6.72
Bismuth 9.822
Brass, Cast. 8.4
Bronze.. 8.561
Copper, cast.. 8.607
Copper, wire. 8.9
Gold, 24carat. 19.361
 Example:

A bargain hunter buys a pure (24 karat) gold crown at a

flea market. After getting it home, she suspends the crown
on a scale and finds its weight to be 18.840 N. She then
weighs the crown while it is immersed in water and finds the
scale reads 17.864 N. Is the crown made of pure gold? Density
of gold is 19.3 x 103 kg/m3 (similar to Archimedes problem
Alloys – “to bind to “
 

An alloy is a material that contains more than one element

and has the characteristic properties of a metal.
An alloy is usually made up mostly of metals, but may
contain other types of elements.

For example:
pure gold, 24 karat, is too soft to make jewellery; the
common alloy, 14 karat--an alloy of gold and copper--is
harder and suitable for jewellery.
 
 

Purpose:

to increase the hardness, lower the melting point and

conductivity or modify the properties of the separate
metals.
A. Copper Alloys:
The element copper is prone to oxidation, which makes it
surface turn a dull, pale-greenish color. To prevent oxidation,
and to increase its strength, manufacturers fuse copper with a
number of different elements
1. Brass
- one of the most important alloys of copper, combination
of copper and zinc.
The color of brass varies from dark reddish brown to a light
silvery yellow depending on the amount of zinc present; the
more zinc, the lighter the color. Brass is stronger and harder
than copper.
Brass is used to make tubing, pipe fittings, plumbing fixtures
and valves. It does not corrode much in salt water, conducts
heat very well and can be moulded into a variety of shapes
2. Bronze
 
- alloy of copper (usually about 90 per cent)and tin but
other elements ( Pb, Zn, Ni, P, Mn & Fe) are sometimes added
to produce certain effects. Used in the manufacture of
medals, coins and other decorative items. Bronze is harder,
stronger in compression and more resistant to corrosion than
the brasses.
B. Gold Alloys

are often used in jewellery. Twenty-four-karat gold is

pure gold, while 10- or 18-karat gold is made by alloying
gold with other metals, such as nickel, copper, silver or
titanium. They harden it, make it stronger, more fusible
and modify its color.
 
karat – term used to expressed the purity of gold.
Jeweller’s alloys:
 
karat gold copper silver
 
23 23 1/2 1/2
22 22 1 1
20 20 2 2
18 18 3 3
15 15 6 3
13 13 8 3
 
1. Electrum is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver,
with trace amounts of copper and other metals. Electrum is
a good conductor of electricity. The colour of electrum is
pale yellow or yellowish-white. Also known as the Green
Gold .

Proportions: gold 75% and silver 25% (or 73% gold and
27% silver).

2. Tumbaga is an alloy composed mostly of gold and copper. It

has a significantly lower melting point than gold or copper
alone. It is harder than copper, but maintains malleability after
being pounded.
Rose gold is a gold and copper alloy widely used for specialized
jewellery. It is also known as pink gold and red gold. also
known as the Russian gold.

3. White Gold is an alloy of gold and at least one white metal,

usually nickel, manganese or palladium. White gold's
properties vary depending on the metals and proportions used.
- a nickel-gold alloy is hard and strong and therefore good
for rings and pins,

- gold-palladium alloys are soft, pliable and good for white

gold gemstone setting

 
The alloys used in jewellery industry are : a) gold-palladium-silver and
b)gold-nickel-copper-zinc.
 
The primary bleaching agents for gold are: Palladium and nickel
The secondary bleaching agent to attenuate the color of copper is Zinc.
 
4. Span gold – is an alloy of gold copper-aluminum that form a fine surface
texture at heat treatment, yielding an interesting spangling effect.

Gold – 76 %
Copper – 19 % yellow color
Aluminum – 5 %
 
Gold – 76 %
Copper – 18% pink color
Aluminum – 6%
5. Grey gold alloys are made by adding silver, manganese and
copper in specific ratios to the gold.

6. Black Gold
produced by various methods:
a) Electroplating, using black rhodium or ruthenium. Solutions
that contain ruthenium give a slightly harder black coating than
those that contain rhodium.
b) Patination by applying sulfur and oxygen containing
compounds.
c) controlled oxidation of gold containing chromium or cobalt
(e.g. 75% gold, 25% cobalt).
7. Purple gold (also called amethyst gold and violet gold) is an
alloy of gold and aluminum rich in gold-aluminium
intermetallic. Purple gold is more brittle than other gold
alloys, as it is an intermetallic compound instead of a
malleable alloy, and a sharp blow may cause it to shatter.

8. Blue gold is an alloy of gold and indium. It contains 46%

gold (about 12 ct) and 54% indium, forming an intermetallic
compound AuIn2, with a clear blue color.
 
Nickel
 Nickel’s key characteristics are:
High melting point, 1453 ºC

Resists corrosion and oxidation

Very ductile

Alloys readily

Magnetic at room temperature

Can be deposited by electroplating

Has catalytic properties

NICKEL ALLOYS
 
1. MONEL or NICORROS

Contain nickel with copper and small amounts of iron and

manganese. This nickel copper alloys contains 63% nickel
minimum, 28-34% copper, and a maximum of 2% manganese
and 2.5% iron.

Nickel copper alloys find wide application in oil refining and

marine applications where long corrosion- free life is
required.
 
2. NICROM and NIMONIC

These nickel chromium base alloys are used extensively in

applications where heat resistance and/or corrosion
resistance is required. In some members of the group, where
conditions are less demanding, some nickel is replaced by
iron to decrease the overall cost.
 
Nickel Alloys - Manufacturing Process
To make Nickel Alloys, start with the purest available
raw materials to achieve the required chemical composition. A
correct chemical composition is necessary to give uniform
and required properties to different alloys. The alloys are then
Melted, Hot-Rolled and Processed to final sizes.

All processes are constantly monitored at each step using

statistical process control tools to ensure the best quality of
the final products. The process for making each alloy is set after
a detailed exercise using concepts such as Failure Mode Effect
Analysis (FEMA) and Design of Experiments (DOE)
 The Manufacturing Process

Melting
 Hot Rolling

Process that occurs above the recrystallization temperature of the material,

 Acid Pickling

Removal of impurities
 Annealing

Heat treatment where in

material is altered, causing
changes in its properties such as
Strength and hardness.
-Used to induce ductility, soften
Material, refine the structure.
Wire Drawing
COLD ROLLING / SLITTING

The temperature of the metal is below

its recrystallization.
Annealing
Quality Control
Packing
Applications and Characteristics of Nickel Alloys

Nickel and nickel alloys are used for a wide variety of

applications, the majority of which involve corrosion
resistance and/or heat resistance. Some of these include:

1. Aircraft gas turbines

2. Steam turbine power plants
3. Medical applications
4. Nuclear power systems
5. Chemical and petrochemical industries
 
D. Silver Alloys

Silver is a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has

the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the
highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal occurs
naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with
gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and
chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a by-product of copper,
gold, lead, and zinc refining.
1. Billon
is an alloy of a precious metal (most commonly silver, but
also mercury) with majority base metal content (such as
copper). It is used chiefly for making coins, medals, and token
coins.

2. Goloid
is an alloy of silver, gold and copper patented by
Dr. William Wheeler Hubbel. The patent specifies 1
part gold (about 3.6%), 24 parts silver (about 87.3%),
and 2.5 parts copper (about 9.1%, all by weight
E. Iron Alloys

Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and

atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition
series. It is the most common element in the whole planet
Earth, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core, and
it is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust.
Pure iron is soft (softer than aluminum). The material
is significantly hardenened and strengthened by
impurities from the smelting.
1. Elinvar

This consists of 59% iron, 36% nickel, and 5% chromium. It

is almost nonmagnetic and corrosion resistant. The largest
use of Elinvar was in balance springs for mechanical watches
and chronometers. A major cause of inaccuracy in watches
and clocks was that ordinary steels used in springs lost
elasticity slightly as the temperature increased, so the
balance wheel would oscillate more slowly back and forth,
and the clock would lose time.
2. Fernico

Is an alloy of Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co).

The alloy has the same linear coefficient of expansion as
certain types of glass, and thus makes an ideal material for the
lead out wires in light bulbs and thermionic valves.

3. Ferroalloy

Refers to various alloys of iron with a high proportion of one

or more other element, manganese or silicon for example. It is
used in the production of steels and alloys as a raw material.

 
The main ferroalloys are:
FeAl – ferroaluminum
FeB – ferroboron – 12–20% of boron, max. 3% of silicon, max. 2% aluminium,
max. 1% of carbon
FeCe – ferrocerium
FeCr – ferrochromium
FeMg – ferromagnesium
FeMn – ferromanganese
FeMo – ferromolybdenum – min. 60% Mo, max. 1% Si, max. 0.5% Cu
FeNb – ferroniobium, also called ferrocolumbium
FeNi – ferronickel
FeP – ferrophosphorus
FeSi – ferrosilicon – 15–90% Si
FeSiMg – ferrosilicon magnesium (with Mg 4 to 25 %), also called nodulizer
FeTi – ferrotitanium – 10..30–65..75% Ti, max. 5–6.5% Al, max. 1–4% Si
FeU – ferrouranium
FeV – ferrovanadium
FeW – ferrotungsten
 Ferroalloys are produced by adding chemical
elements into molten metal, usually during steelmaking.
They impart distinctive qualities to steel and cast iron or
serve important functions during production and are,
therefore, closely associated with the iron and steel
industry, the leading consumer of ferroalloys.

( assignment: Proportions of its composition,

use in the industry)
- bond paper
- submit on July 17
- quiz on July 12
 Slag
By-product of melting metals which are composed of metal
oxides and sulphides.
 
Principal Function:

to remove gangue from the furnace and thus to separate it

from other molten products.
 
1.slags are the site of chemical reactions
Important Functions:
 
- processes of extractive metallurgy takes place

2. droplets of metal or matte settle in the slag, thus ensuring separation of the
metallic part from the gangue.

3. slag composition generally determines the maximum or minimum

temperature which can be obtained in each particular case in the furnace.

4. slags interact with the metallic bath in smelting and refining of metals and
alloys.
- thus governing the refining efficiency and the concentration of impurities
in the metal produced.

 
5. slags serve as binders in sintering of ores and concentrates.
sintering
-process of forming objects from a metal powder at a
temperature below its melting point.

6. a coat of slag protects the metal against saturation by

furnace gases or oxidation.

7. slags serve as resistor element in metallurgical processes

involving the application of electric power.

 
Composition of slag
 1. Acidic Oxides
are oxides of either non-metals or of metals in high oxidation states.
examples: Silicon Dioxide(SiO2) , P2O5, SO3

2. Basic Oxides
an oxide that shows basic properties in opposition to acidic oxides
 
examples: CaO, MgO, PbO
 
3. Amphoteric Oxides
possesses a property that can react with acid and base.
examples:Al2O3, ZnO
 

 
Flux
-A substance added to metals while they are in a furnace to
remove impurities, promote fusing and form a fusible slag.
- Reduced the melting point
 
Choice of Fluxes.
 

1. Basic materials
 
Siliceous materials, such as sand, quartz, and natural
silicates, are used.
 
2. Acid Materials
 
Calcareous materials, such as limestone, dolomite, are used as
fluxes for silica, silicates, and acid materials.
 
3. Refining Materials
Alkaline fluxes are used.
a. Ammonium chloride
- a clear white water soluble crystalline salt of ammonia
- is used as a source of chlorine in purifying gold. used as a
flux in preparing metals to be tin coated, galvanized or soldered.
It works as a flux by cleaning the surface of work pieces by
reacting with the metal
oxides at the surface to form a volatile metal chloride.
 
 b. Common salt is a flux for silica; it is fusible and serves
as a protecting covering to molten metals.
 
c. Borax is a good flux for silica as well as for bases,
sulphides, and arsenide’s.
- known as sodium borate
- usually a white powder consisting of soft colorless
crystals that dissolves easily in water
d. Sodium carbonate - sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) an
oxidizer to many metals. It forms readily fusible compounds
with silica and many oxides.
- white powder, used for mineral processing by flotation
agent for steel making.
e. Potassium cyanide is an excellent flux for sulphur, as well as
for silica and other infusible bodies.
 
f. Lead Oxide
- known as litharge
- uses lead to collect and separate precious metals from a
molten charge. The precious metals are recovered by
vaporization.
 
SMELTING
 What do I need to do Smelting?

1.Small furnace, gas or electric fired.

2.crucible, preferably graphite will last longer.

3. smelting flux.

4.tongs,saftey equipment
Procedure:
1. Good clean black sand concentrates.
Preferably dry and ground to #70 - #100 mesh in
size.
2, Smelting Flux for precious metal.
You may have to make minor flux receipe
adjustments depending on the concentrates
you are planning to smelt.
•1, anhydrous Borax, 5 parts.
•2, #70 silica sand, 40 parts.
•3, soda ash, 10 parts.
•4, sodium nitrate, 20 parts [oxidizer].
5, Now mix all of this together and store for when
needed in a closed container,"keep it dry".

6, When ready to smelt your cons, add 1-2 parts of Flux

to each part of Concentrates. Mix well and put the heat
to it.

7, Put flux/cons mix into crucible and put in cool furnace.

8, Fire up furnace and let it warm up slowly to about
500-600*F.

9, Once upto good hot temp [listed above] take it upto

2000*F and hold for at least 30 minutes.
10, Prepare pour [ I use cast iron] mold by drying it out
and heating it up [few hundred degrees].
•Special Point, if the pour is to thick add some more
borax to thin it out.
11, Get on all of your saftey gear, face mask,long sleeve
gloves, apron also have a fire extingusher.
12, Once ready to pour, put grabbing end of tongs into
furnace for a few seconds to heat them up, [avoid
themal shock to crucible].
13, Now grab crucible and begin to pour into mold in one
continuous pour.Make sure you have enough mold for
"ALL" of the smelted material.
14, Once poured, set cucible on warm surface, not on
cold [thermal shock]. crucible let cool.
Now to finish up with the process.

1, Once cooled down [several hours] flip mold and pop

out the cooled pour.
2, You will see a layer of precious metal on top and a
layer of Borax/silica glass below melted together.
3, using a small hammer or mallet, strike the edge of the
metal and it'll separate from the glass.
4, That is your Gold with possible silver and platinum
mixed in.
5, All of the other metals will have either burned off or
will be suspended in the Borax/Silica glass layer.
Why is Smelting so important?

Its a known fact that there can be 4 - 10 times more

Gold in your concentrates than the visible Gold
that you can see and recover. There are several ways
to recover this material including leaching,
smelting and others. But one of the most practicle
and proven methods is to smelt the concentrates.
Remember one thing, when smelting, you are now
a chemist as well as a Gold Prospector. And careful
attention must be paid to what you are doing at all
times. A mistake can mean serious consequences
too and include even death.
Furnace
is an arrangement for conducting metallurgical operations by the agency of
heat.

Three classes:

1. Those without an independent fireplace such as Blast Furnace

 

2. Those with an independent fireplace such as Reverberatory furnace

 

3. Those in which the material is separated both from the fuel and from the
products of combustion such as a zinc retort
 

 
 Classification of Furnaces:
1. Hearth
is a low furnace in which the material to be operated upon is mixed with the fuel and flux.

2. Blast Furnace
Contains one common receptacle for the materials used. commonly used for
smelting iron ores.
 
3. Reverberatory Furnaces
 
In this class the fire is separated from the metalliferous matter by a low brick wall termed a
fire-bridge. They are generally worked by means of a natural draught, but an air blast is
sometimes used.
 

4. Closed Vessel Furnaces.

The vessel may be a crucible, as in melting platinum: or a retort, as in distilling
zinc ; or a tube, as in liquating bismuth ; or a more or less rectangular chest, as in the
cementation of steel.
 
Blast Furnace
  Metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce
industrial metals, particularly iron.
 
The fuel employed is coal, coke, and charcoal, because oxides or
materials which have been more or less oxidised by a previous
roasting, are generally treated in the furnace

Coke – is a solid carbonaceous material derived from

distillation of low-ash, low sulphur bituminous coal. used as a
fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore.

Fuel and ore are supplied through the top of the furnace
while air is blown into the bottom of the chamber.
The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases
tapped from the bottom, and gases exiting from the top of the
furnace.  
materials charged and discharged;
 
A. Materials put into a blast furnace:
 
1. fuel charge at the throat
2. iron ore
3. fluxes blown in at the tuyeres
4. blast
 
B. Materials discharged from the furnace
 
1. pig iron tapped from the crucible
2. slag
3. gases
4. dust passing out at the top
 
 
Pig Iron – intermediate product of smelting iron ore usually
with limestone as a flux.
 EXTRACTION OF IRON

GENERAL PROCESS

• occurs in the BLAST FURNACE

• high temperature process

• continuous

• iron ores are REDUCED by carbon / carbon monoxide

• is possible because iron is below carbon in the reactivity series

 EXTRACTION OF IRON

RAW MATERIALS

HAEMATITE - Fe2O3 a source of iron

COKE fuel / reducing agent

CHEAP AND PLENTIFUL

LIMESTONE conversion of silica into slag

(calcium silicate) – USED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

AIR source of oxygen for combustion

Click here for animation

 THE BLAST FURNACE

IN THE BLAST FURNACE IRON

G
ORE IS REDUCED TO IRON.
THE REACTION IS A
POSSIBLE BECAUSE
CARBON IS ABOVE IRON
IN THE REACTIVITY C
SERIES

D
Click on the letters to see
what is taking place
B B
E
F
 THE BLAST FURNACE

COKE, LIMESTONE AND IRON

ORE ARE ADDED AT THE TOP Now move the

A cursor away
from the tower
 THE BLAST FURNACE

HOT AIR IS BLOWN IN NEAR THE

BOTTOM
CARBON + OXYGEN CARBON + HEAT
DIOXIDE

C + O2 CO2

OXYGEN IN THE AIR REACTS

WITH CARBON IN THE COKE.
THE REACTION IS HIGHLY
EXOTHERMIC AND GIVES OUT
HEAT. B B

Now move the

cursor away
from the tower
 THE BLAST FURNACE

THE CARBON DIOXIDE

PRODUCED REACTS WITH
MORE CARBON TO PRODUCE
CARBON MONOXIDE
Now move the
C cursor away
from the tower

CARBON + CARBON CARBON

DIOXIDE MONOXIDE

C + CO2 2CO
 THE BLAST FURNACE

THE CARBON MONOXIDE

REDUCES THE IRON OXIDE

CARBON + IRON CARBON + IRON

MONOXIDE OXIDE DIOXIDE

Now move the

3CO + Fe2O3 3CO2 + 2Fe
D cursor away
from the tower

REDUCTION INVOLVES
REMOVING OXYGEN
 THE BLAST FURNACE

SILICA IN THE IRON ORE IS

REMOVED BY REACTING
WITH LIME PRODUCED
FROM THE THERMAL
DECOMPOSITION OF
LIMESTONE

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

CALCIUM SILICATE
(SLAG) IS PRODUCED
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
MOLTEN SLAG IS RUN
OFF AND COOLED E
Now move the
cursor away
from the tower
 THE BLAST FURNACE

MOLTEN IRON RUNS TO THE

BOTTOM OF THE FURNACE.
IT IS TAKEN OUT (CAST) AT
REGULAR INTERVALS

CAST IRON

- cheap and easily moulded

- used for drainpipes, engine blocks
F Now move the
cursor away
from the tower
 THE BLAST FURNACE

HOT WASTE GASES ARE

G
RECYCLED TO AVOID
POLLUTION AND SAVE
ENERGY

CARBON MONOXIDE - POISONOUS

SULPHUR DIOXIDE - ACIDIC RAIN
CARBON DIOXIDE - GREENHOUSE GAS

RECAP
Extractive metallurgy
is the study of the processes used in the separation and
concentration (benefaction) of raw materials.

It covers all aspects of the physical and chemical processes

used to produce mineral-containing and metallic materials,
sometimes for direct use as a finished product, but more
often in a form that requires further physical processing
which is generally the subject of physical metallurgy.
Different Categories:
I. Mineral processing

also known as mineral dressing or ore dressing, is the

process of separating commercially valuable minerals from their
ores.

Four general types of unit operation:

A. Comminution
is the particle size reduction of materials. These are carried out
on either dry materials or slurries.
Two Primary Comminution Processes
 
1. Crushing - normally carried out on "run-of-mine”ore

2
2. Grinding - conducted on dry or slurried material
B. Sizing

is the general term for separation of particles according to

their size.

The simplest sizing process is screening, or passing the

particles to be sized through a screen or number of
screens. Screening equipment can include grizzlies, bar
screens.

 
Classification refers to sizing operations that exploit the
differences in settling velocities exhibited by particles of
different size. Classification equipment may include ore sorters,
gas cyclones, hydrocyclones, rotating trommels, rake classifiers
or fluidized classifiers.
C. Concentration
There are a number of ways to increase the concentration of the
wanted minerals: in any particular case the method chosen will
depend on the relative physical and surface chemical properties
of the mineral and the gangue.
1. Gravity concentration
- based on their specific gravity where air is the main
fluid medium used for the process.
examples:
a. Shaking tables, such as the Wilfley table
b · Spiral separators

 
2. Froth flotation
- is an important concentration process that can be used to
separate any two different particles and operated by the
surface chemistry of the particles.

- bubbles are introduced into a pulp and rises up on the

surface. In the process, hydrophobic particles become bound to
the surface of the bubbles. These bubbles rise through the
slurry and are collected from the surface. To enable these
particles to attach, careful consideration of the chemistry of
the pulp needs to be made. These considerations include the
pH, Eh and the presence of flotation reagents
 
flotation reagents
a. Frothers - it enables stable bubbles to be formed. This is
important as if the bubble coalesce, minerals fall off their
surface.

b. Depressants- inhibit the flotation of one mineral or

minerals
. Examples of these include CN-, used to depress all
sulphides
c. Activators - enable the flotation of others
d. Collectors – organic substances that impart
hydrophobicity to mineral particles to be floated, w/c
makes possible the attachment of the particles to gas bubbles.
 
D. Dewatering - solid/liquid separation.
to remove water contained in particles. The main processes
that are used in dewatering include dewatering screens,
sedimentation, filtering, and thermal drying.

1. Dewatering screens operate by passing particles over a

screen. The particles pass over the screen while the water
passes through the apertures in the screen. This process is
only viable for coarse ores that have a close size distribution
as the apertures can allow small particles to pass though and
are not able to be produced for small particles.
2. Sedimentation operates by passing water into a large
thickener or clarifier. In these devices, the particles settle out of
the slurry under the effects of gravity or centripetal forces. To
aid in the sedimentation process, floculants and coagulants are
added to reduce the repulsive forces between the particles.
The floculants work by binding multiple particles together
while the coagulants work by reducing the thickness of the
charged layer on the outside of the particle.

3. Thermal drying is usually used for fine particles and to

remove low water content in the particles. Some common
processes include rotary dryers, fluidised beds, spray driers,
hearth dryers and rotary tray dryers. This process is usually
expensive to operate due to the heating requirements of the
dryers.