Digital Image

Processing
Lecture 2
Basic Relationship Between Pixels
Note book & Lab Report
• Proper notebook to keep record of each lecture.
• Lab report for each task you perform
Basic Relationships Between Pixels
• Neighborhood
• Adjacency
• Paths
• Connectivity
• Regions
• Boundaries
Neighbors of a pixel - N4(p)
• Any pixel p(x, y) has two vertical and two
horizontal neighbors, given by
x , y+1
(x+1, y),
(x-1, y),
(x, y+1),
(x, y-1)
• This set of pixels are called the 4-
x-1 , y x,y x+1 , y

neighbors of P, and is denoted by N4(P).

x , y-1
Neighbors of a pixel - ND(p)
• Any pixel p(x, y) has four diagonal
neighbors, given by
x-1 , y+1 x+1, y+1
(x+1, y+1), (x+1, y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x-1 ,y-1)
• This set is denoted by ND(p).

x,y

x-1, y-1 x+1,y-1

Neighbors of a pixel – N8(p)
• ND(p) and N4(p) are together known as 8-
Neighbors and are denoted by N8(p) x-1,y+1 x,y+1 x+1, y+1
• ND(p) U N4(p) = N8(p)
• What about when p(x,y) is a border pixel
of the image ?
x-1,y x,y x+1,y

x-1,y-1 x,y-1 x+1,y-1

Adjacency
• Let V be the set of intensity values used to define adjacency
• For binary images  V = {1}
• A particular grayscale image  V = {1,3,5,…,251,253,255}
• 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-adjacent if q
is in the set N4(p).
• 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8-adjacent if q
is in the set N8(p).
 Adjacency
• m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-adjacent if,
q is in N4(p)
OR
q is in ND(p) AND N4(p)∩N4(q) has no pixels whose values are from V
Path
• set of pixels lying in some adjacency definition
• 4-adjacency  4-path
• 8-adjacency  8-path
• m-adjacency  m-path
• path length ?
Connectivity
• Two pixels p and q are said to be connected in S if there exist a path
between them consisting entirely of pixels in S.
• S subset of pixels in an image
• For any pixel p in S the set of pixels that are connected to it in S is
called connected component of S.
• If S has only one connected component, then it is called connected
set.
Region
• A connected set is also called a Region.
• Two regions (let Ri and Rj) are said to be adjacent if their union forms
a connected set. Adjacent Regions or joint regions
• Regions that are not adjacent are said to be disjoint regions.
• 4- and 8-adjacency is considered when referring to regions (author)
• Discussing a particular region, type of adjacency must be specified.
• Fig2.25d the two regions are adjacent only if 8-adjacency is considered
Foreground and Background
• Suppose an image contain K disjoint regions Rk , k=1,2,3,…K, none of
which touches the image border
• Let Ru denote the union of all the K regions.
• Let (Ru)c denote its compliment.

• We call all the points in Ru the foreground and all the points in (Ru)c
the background
 Boundary
• The boundary (border or contour) of a region R is the set of points that are
adjacent to the points in the complement of R.
• Set of pixels in the region that have at least one background neighbor.
• The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that have one or more
neighbors that are not in R.
• Inner Border: Border of Foreground
• Outer Border: Border of Background
• If R happens to be entire Image?
• There is a difference between boundary and edge in Digital Image Paradigm.
The author refers this discussion to chapter 10.
Distance Measures
• Euclidean Distance: De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

4 3 2 3 4
3 2 1 2 3
2 1 0 1 2
3 2 1 2 3
• City Block Distance: D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t| 4 3 2 3 4

2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 2
2 1 0 1 2
2 1 1 1 2
• Chess Board Distance: D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)
2 2 2 2 2
Sample Problem from exercise