Unit II

Temperature Measurement
 • Contents:
– Temperature scales
– Classification of temperature sensors
– Principle, construction and working, merits and demerits of Non
electrical and electrical temperature sensors

• Learning outcomes: After learning the lesson students should be able to

– Describe the principles of operation of different types of temperature sensors
– Describe the signal conditioning aspects of different types of temperature
sensors
– Explain the comparative merits and demerits (static and dynamic
characteristics) of each sensor.
– To be able to select the suitable temperature sensor for particular application
 Importance of Temperature Measurement
• Needed for:
– Temperature is very important quantity
– Control : Heat exchanger, Reactor To avoid side
reactions or by
– Safety and energy efficiency product formation
– Different applications
• The effect of temperature on reaction rates:
• As you increase the temperature the rate of
reaction increases.
• Particles can only react when they collide.
• If you heat a substance, the particles move
faster and so collide more frequently. That will
speed up the rate of reaction
• Morphology : Precipitation reaction.
Inaccurate temperature measurement may result in a low reaction rate, low yield, poor
selectivity, or increased concentration of impurities, which increase the costs of
manufacturing significantly
• How is Temperature Measurement Important in Different Industries
• An accurate determination of temperature, is an important factor in many industries
as follows:
• Food and Beverage Processing: Measurement and control of temperature is of
utmost importance for both food and beverage processing manufacturers.
Temperature is one of the important factors to consider during the bulk production of
food items.
• In the beverage industry, temperature plays a vital role in deciding the quality of the
final product. During the wine making or brewing process, the ambient temperature,
as well as fermentation temperature, could have a positive or negative effect. Even in
the process of milk pasteurization, the temperature is important to ensure the
removal of harmful pathogens, such as Escherichia, Salmonella, and Listeria.
• Plastic Production: Temperature plays an important role in the plastic industry.
During the manufacturing stages, for example thermoforming, or injection molding,
several temperature ranges needs to be monitored to ensure a high product quality.
• Metal Processing: Be it any type of metal process plant, temperature measurement is
always high on the list for operational excellence. Temperature measurement and
analysis is plays a key role in metal processing, as well as monitoring. If the
temperature measurement information is not correct, then it can affect quality of the
final product, as well as endanger workplace security.
 Temperature Measurement:
• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a
substance.

• It is thermal state of a body or a substance which

determines whether it will give or receive heat from other
bodies.

• If two bodies are in contact : Heat tends to flow from a

body at higher temperature to lower temperature.

• Heat & temperature are closely related.

• Temperature means degree of heat & heat means the
quantity of heat.
 Temperature
• Temperature: A standardized measure of the motion of the individual
atoms and molecules in a gas, liquid, or solid.
– related to average kinetic energy of constituents
• High temperature: The constituents are moving around energetically
– In a gas at high temperature the individual gas molecules are moving
about independently at high speeds.
– In a solid at high temperature the individual atoms of the solid are
vibrating energetically in place.
• The converse is true for a "cold" object.
– In a gas at low temperature the individual gas molecules are moving
about sluggishly.
• There is an absolute zero temperature at which the classical motions of
atoms and molecules practically stop.
• Even at absolute zero, the motion doesn't completely stop.
Temperature Scales:
• Temperature scales are based on at least two fixed points which
are constant in temp.
• 1) lower fixed point or ice point
• 2) upper fixed point or steam point.

• The lower fixed point : is the temperature of ice prepared from

distilled water when melting under the pressure of 760mm of Hg.

• The upper fixed point: is the temperature of steam from distilled

water when boiling under the pressure of 760 mm of Hg.

• The temperature interval between ice point & steam point is

known as the fundamental interval.
Temperature Measurement Scales

Imperial Metric
Fahrenheit (⁰F) / Rankine (⁰R)
+/- 460 Celsius (⁰C) / Kelvin (⁰K)
+/- 273

212⁰F 672⁰R 373⁰K

100⁰C
Fahrenheit
[°F] = [°C] · 9/5 + 32
32⁰F 492⁰R
0⁰C 273⁰K Celsius
0⁰F 460⁰R
-18⁰C 255⁰K [°C] = ([°F] − 32) · 5/9
Kelvin
[K] = [°C] + 273.15
Rankine
[°R] = [°F] + 459.67
 
-273⁰C 0⁰K
-460⁰F 0⁰R
 Classification of Temperature Sensors
• Temperature Measuring instruments are classifieds
according to the nature of the change produced in
the testing body by the change of temperature.

1. Expansion Thermometers. Solid , liquid or gas

expands with
2. Filled System Thermometers change in temp.

3. Electrical Temperature Instruments

4. Pyrometers
Change in temp
causes
Change in electrical properties of materials
Change in temp
e. Resistance or voltage
causes
Change in Thermal radiations
 Classification of Temperature Sensors
1. Expansion Thermometers:
1. Expansion of solids: Bimetallic thermometers
2. Expansion of liquids: Liquid in glass thermometers
2. Filled System Thermometers:
1. Gas filled thermometers
2. Liquid filled thermometers
3. Mercury filled thermometers
4. Vapor pressure thermometers
3. Electrical Temperature Instruments
1. Resistance Temperature detector
2. Thermistor
3. Thermocouple
Recent Advances
4. Pyrometers
in Temperature
1. Radiation pyrometers Sensors
2. Optical Pyrometers
 1.Expansion Thermometers.

• Classified according to the nature of substance

which expands.

1. Expansion of solids: Bimetallic thermometers

2. Expansion of liquids:
1. Liquid in glass thermometers
2. Liquid in metal thermometers
 Bimetallic thermometers
•Construction: Two strips of different metal are welded
together.

•Each metal has different coefficient of thermal

expansion.

•The two metals expand to different lengths when

temperature increases.

•Working: when the temperature around the strip

changes, the bimetallic strip to bend towards the side Working
with low coefficient of expansion. Substances:
•Free end deflection is proportional to temperature
change low High
•One end of strip is fixed. expansion expansion
•Other end bends is directly proportional to the square metal : metal-brass,
of the length of the strip , temperature change & invar nickel, NI-MO
inversely proportional to the thickness of the metal. (36%NI+64 alloy
%Fe)
Coefficient of Expansion of Solids:
• The expansivities of the majority of solid materials increase
with increasing temperature, and can be represented by an
equation of the form:
• α = a + bT + cT2 over limited temperature ranges.
• α. = (l/L)(dL/dT),
• Constantan (65 Cu + 35 Ni)

Material Coefficient of Volumetric

Thermal Expansion in 10-6 /K
(64 Fe + 36 Ni, Invar) 0.13 low expansion metal
Brass (67 Cu + 33 Zn) 17.5 high expansion metal
Nickel 13.4
 Thremal Expansion Chart
Metals α/(10−6 K−1)
•  
100K 200K 293K 500K 800K

(-173.150C) (-73.15 0C) (19.850C) (226.85 0C) (526.85 0C)

(64 Fe + 36 1.4 0.53 0.13 5.1 17.1
Ni, Invar)
Brass (67 Cu 17.5 20 22.5
+ 33 Zn)
Nickel 6.6 11.3 13.4 15.3 16.8
Constantan 11.2 15 17.4 19.2
(65 Cu + 35
Ni)
• Free end deflection of bimetallic strip is increases with increase
in its length
• Hence, to get the large deflection for small temperature
change, long bimetallic strip is arranged in spiral or helix form.
• Configured as spiral or helix for compactness
 Pipeline thermometer: bimetallic
Read out
dial 50-
125 mm
in
diameter

Stem length
up to 600mm
Range:0-1200c
• Accuracy of +/- 1% of span.
• Static errors
• Ambient temperature effect: has very little effect on
accuracy if well inserted in bath
• Immersion effect: if not properly inserted, then
conduction of heat takes place along the thermal well to
outside.
• Dead zone: depends on starting friction in moving
element.
• Advantages:
• Temperature range: -75 to 5400C
• Indicating type only.
• Accuracy of +/- 1% of span.
• Low cost, tough not easily broken.
• Easy installation, little maintenance.

• Applications: where local temperature indication is

required & point of measurement is accessible.
• Offices &Homes for indicating ambient temperature.
Liquid Expansion Thermometers:
Liquid in glass thermometers:
Principle: All liquids expands with rise in temperature.
This volumetric expansion of liquids proportional to rise in temp.
Temp. can be measured in terms of volumetric expansion of liquids.

• Relation between volume of a liquid and temperature is given by :

• VT = V0(1+α T + βT2 +γ T3)
• V0 = Initial Volume
• VT = Final Volume at T0C
• α ,β,γ = Coefficients of Thermal Expansion of Liquids
Material Coefficient of Volumetric Thermal
Expansion g in 10-6 /K
Mercury 180
Ethyl alcohol 1120
Toluene 1070
Pentane 1580
Glass 9.9
Construction of lab and industrial thermometer

Diameter of
capillary
0.025 mm

Capillary
enclosed
in metal
case

Bulb may be spherical or cylindrical Bulb is

0.5 cc volume of bulb inserted in
thermal well
Lab Thermometer Industrial Thermometer
 Liquid in glass thermometers (Mercury):

• Working: Change in temperature

• Change in a volume of a mercury
• Change in level of mercury in tube.
• Working substance: Mercury: temperature range -35
to 5380C
• Mercury: freezes at -390C & boils at 3580C.
• Charging Nitrogen at 30-300psi-increases b.pt up to
5380C. alcohol -80 to 70c
toluene -80 to 100 c
pentane -200 to 30 c
cresol -5 to 200 c
 General Assumptions
•The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient of glass is
much less than that of liquids.

•The variation of temperature (up and down) of the bulb

causes liquid in the system to expand or decrease its volume,
respectively.

•As a result of such changes (the internal volume of the

glass bulb and the glass capillary varies negligible), the
length of the liquid column in the capillary tube goes up or
down proportionally to the variation of temperature.

•The type of thermometric liquid depends on the lower and

upper limits of the measuring temperature range.
Clinical Thermometer

35-420C or 94-108 F
 Thermowell
• Thermal well : used to protect against corrosion and
breakage.
• are designed to protect a temperature sensor from flow,
high pressure and harsh environments.
• Brass, stainless steel or other alloys
• Increases the timelag of thermometer
• Heat is transfered:conduction, convection and radiation.
• Space filled with: oil or mercury, metal powder, graphite.
• Response time increses by 10%
• Advantages:
– Accuracy of +/- 1% of span.
– Low cost
– Wide temperature range -39 to 5380C.
– Less space is required
– Easy installation and long life
– Dead zone is small 0.05-0.1 % of full scale
• Disadvantages:
– Scale is nonlinear
– Not used for rapidly fluctuating temperatures
– It is mounted near the point of measurement
– Liable to breakage
– Non-adaptability to recording or controlling purpose.
 Applications:
• Educational and Medical Uses: Mercury thermometers
may be used in many applications, including chemical
experiments, water and acid baths, blood banks, ovens
and incubators .

• Industrial Uses: Industrial applications include use in

open tanks and piping, chemical tanks, heating and
cooling equipment, breweries, canneries, bakeries,
candy making, dairies, ships, wineries and distilleries,
and paint kettles.
 Filled Systems Thermometers

Principle: The filling or transmitting medium is a vapor, a gas,

mercury, or another liquid.
Pressure of certain fixed volume of
1. Gas filled thermometers gas varies with the temperature
2. Liquid filled thermometers Utilizes volumetric expansion of
liquid with rise in temperature
3. Mercury filled thermometers
4. Vapor pressure thermometers Vapor Pressure of volatile liquid
varies with the temperature

• In this system, the filling fluid expands as temperature

increases. This causes the Bourdon tube to uncoil and
indicate the temperature on a calibrated dial.
Expansion Thermometers
Filled System Thermometer Construction:

Similar operation as the liquid in glass

Spiral Type Bourdon Tube
 Bulb
 Capillary tube
 Pressure element : bourdon tube
 Scale

PEC – UET Lahore Dr. Shahid Naveed 9/2/21 / Dr. –Ing Naveed Ramzan 30
 Liquid filled thermometers
• Typically hydrocarbons such as xylene having 6 times
higher coefficient of expansion than mercury : so that
smaller bulbs possible.
• Coefficient of Volumetric Thermal Expansion g in 10-6 /K:
990

• Change in temperature
expansion of liquid
straightening of bourdon tube
movement of pointer across scale
• Accuracy: ±0.5% full range
 Gas filled thermometers:
• The gas-filled system uses the GAY-LUSSAC law, which states
:
• PαT
• Principle: If the certain volume of gas is enclosed in bulb,
capillary &the bourdon tube , then the pressure increased
indicated by bourdon tube calibrated in terms of the
temperature of the bulb.

• Nitrogen :cheap & inert but above 4270 c react with steel bulb.
• at low temp. helium is used.

• Gases having lower thermal capacity than liquids : rapid

response.
• The only restrictions that the temperature must be expressed in
degrees Kelvin and the pressure must be in absolute units.
• Advantage : gas in the bulb has lower thermal
capacity than a similar quantity of liquid, so the
response of thermometer to the temperature changes
will be more rapid than that for a liquid filled system
with a bulb of the same size and shape.
 Vapor pressure thermometers
Construction is same, except volatile liquid partially fills the system.
Since vapor pressure of liquid is a function of its surface temp. its free surface always
exist at the bulb

• Change in temperature
increase in evaporation of liquid
increase in vapor pressure
straightening of bourdon tube
movement of pointer across scale.
• Higher the temperature, the greater the amount of liquid that
has evaporated & greater the pressure exerted by its vapor.
• Working Substances:
– Methyl chloride :0-500C Water, sulfur dioxide
– Ethyl alcohol :90-1700C
– Toluene :150-2500C
 Vapour Pressure
• The equation that describes how the vapor pressure
changes with temperature is called as Clausius-Clapeyron
equation

• P1=760 mm Hg, T1=1000C, Hvap=40.7 KJ/mol

• P2=? T2=200C
Vapor pressure thermometers
 Sources of static error:

Accuracy: ±0.5% full range

• Ambient temperature effect (for liquid filled thermometer)

– Causes If bulb and receiving elements like bourdon tube is
separated by capillary
– Any change in surrounding temp causes change in temp. reading
– If ratio of volume of bulb to capillary and receiving element is
large 1000:1 then effect is negligible
– Bimetallic strip compensation
• Ambient temperature effect (for gas filled thermometer)
– Effect is small as compared to liquid filled system
• Ambient temperature effect (for Vapor press Thermometer )
– pressure is determined by temperature at free surface of liquid
inside the bulb
– Do not require any compensation
• Head effect:
– Causes if thermometer bulb is at higher or lower elevation
than receiving element
– If liquid/gas is filled at high press 1000 psi-then head effect
is negligible.
– To correct head effect: thermometer is calibrated with the
bulb in its elevated or depressed position.
• Immersion effect:
– Causes if thermometer is not properly immersed to
sufficient depth
– for liquid and gas-should be properly immersed.
– For vapor – pressure -free surface of liquid should be in
good contact with bath liquid.
 Advantages
• Rugged, no external power source
• Low maintenance
• Capillary allows- distance between point of
measurement and display (indication)
• Limited to 75 m
• Cost is low
• Deliver enough power to drive pointer but also for
controlling mechanism.
• Mercury thermometer have greater sensitivity than
other thermometers
 Disadvantages
• Accuracy, sensitivity and span: less than
electrical instruments.
• Need a large bulb for increasing accuracy
• In case of failure: replace entire system
• Span is intermediate between bimetallic and
electrical instruments.
 Performance Specifications
Type Range Accuracy Resolution Scale
(0C) % (0C)
Solid Expansion -150 to 500 1 1 -2 Nonlinear

Liquid Expansion -125 to 500 1 0.02 – 0.2 Nonlinear

Gas/Vap Press. -120 to 450 1 0.001 Nonlinear

Resistance Thermo -200 to 700  0.01 0.0001 Approx linear

Thermistor Type -50 to 300 1 0.02 Nonlinear

Thermocouple -150 to 1500 1 1 Approx linear

Optical Pyrometry 700 to 3000 1 1 - 10 Nonlinear

 Electrical Temperature Instruments

The output of electrical temperature sensor is in

the form of electrical signals i.e. Voltage or
current.

»Resistance temperature detectors

»Thermistors
»Thermocouple
 Thermistors Principle:
 Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor, is a
temperature-sensitive resistor fabricated from semiconducting
materials.
 Thermistor is a semiconductor material whose electrical resistance
decreases with rise in temperature and vice versa.
 Thus change in temperature can be measured in terms of change in
its electrical resistance.
 The operating range can be -100°C to + 200°
 Typically used over a small temperature range, (compared to other
temperature sensors) because of their non-linear characteristics
Thermistors Construction:
 The Thermistor can be in the shape of a rod, bead or disc.
 It can be encapsulated in plastic, encased in glass tubes,
cemented or soldered in bolts.

Beads: 1-2.5mm diam

Discs: 5-25mm diam
Rods: 1-6 mm diam &
50 mm length

 Working Substances:
 Manufactured from oxides of nickel, manganese, iron, cobalt,
magnesium, titanium and other metals.
 Beads are usually glass coated.
 Indicating element: Wheatstone bridge circuit

Working :
Thermistor is placed in bath whose temperature is to be measured.
As the bath temperature changes, electrical resistance of thermistor
changes.
This causes the unbalanced in Wheatstone bridge circuit.
This unbalance signal is indicated by galvanometer deflection.
Hence, galvanometer can be calibrated in terms of bath
temperature.
Thermistors
Highly Non-linear relationship

  β ( 𝑇1 −
1
𝑇 0 )
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅 0 𝑒
RT= resistance at T K
R0= resistance at T0 K
Β= material constant

 Sensitivity= =-

 The word that best describes the thermistors is “sensitive”

 Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature.
 it can be changed by 1 KΩ for change in 10C
 greater sensitivity or signal response than other temperature
sensors such as thermocouples and RTDs.
Advantages:
• Range -100 to 2000C.
• Accuracy ±0.1 -0.2 0C Resolution 0.02 0C
• Small sizes and fast response (0.5 seconds or faster)
• Low cost
• Suitability for narrow spans
• Due to large self resistance (RT/RL=1000) : lead wire resistances
negligible
• Sensitivity, (highly sensitive, it can be changed by 1 KΩ for
change in 10C)
Disadvantages:
• More susceptible to permanent decalibration at high
temperatures.
• Use is limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius.
• Respond quickly to temperature changes, thus, especially
susceptible to self-heating errors.
• Application examples
1. In household electronics: in refrigerators and deep freezers,
washing machines, electric cookers, hair-driers, etc.

2. In automotive electronics: for measuring the temperature of

cooling water or oil, for monitoring the temperature of
exhaust gas, cylinder head or braking system, for controlling
the temperature in the passenger compartment, etc.

3. in heating and air conditioning: for room temperature

monitoring, in under floor heating and gas boilers, for
determining exhaust gas or burner temperature, as outdoor
temperature sensors, etc.

4. In telecommunications: for temperature measurement and

compensation in mobile phones .
 Resistance Temperature Detector- RTD
• Principle:
• RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a temperature sensitive resistor.
• It is a positive temperature coefficient device, which means that the resistance of
substances increases with increasing temperature.
• These substances are metal: platinum, nickel, copper.
• Hence, any change in temperature can be measured in terms of change in
resistance of metals.
• Relation between resistance & temperature for metals:

• R=R0 (1+a1T+a2T2+…) or RT=RT0 [1+a1(T-T0)+a2(T-T0)2+…) ]

• R=resistance at temperature T0c, R0=resistance at temperature 00c

• a1, a2 =coefficients of resistance. Nonlinearity of RTD AT 100 0C= 0.76% F.S.D

Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)

Platinum Scale ( 0 to 100 °C )

Construction:
Sensing bulb consist of coil of fine resistance wire wound on or inside
the frame of insulating material.
Resistance wire wound on
ceramic rod and sealed by glass

Resistance wire passed through small

holes drilled in ceramic rod.
RTDs with a bridge circuit

Indicating Element: wheatstone bridge circuit is used to

measure the resistance.

Only practical if the RTD lead wires are short.

In many applications the RTD is located far from the
conditioning circuit adding extra resistance because the length
of the copper lead wire. Cu = 0.0302 Ω per ft.
RTDs with a bridge circuit

2 Wire Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

R2 = R1
R3 RT+L1+L2
In balanced condition.

Working :
RTD sensing bulb is placed in bath whose temperature is to be
measured.
As the bath temperature changes, electrical resistance RT changes.
This causes the unbalanced in Wheatstone bridge circuit.
This unbalance signal is indicated by galvanometer deflection.
Hence, galvanometer can be calibrated in terms of bath
temperature.
3 Wire Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
 Working substances:
• However, Platinum is the most dominant material internationally.
• Two types of Platinum Resistance thermometers:

• 1) Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) having

accuracy at ±0.0001°C.
• Temp. range= triple point of hydrogen 13.81 K to freezing point
of antimony 630.750c
• base resistance is exactly 25.00 ohms at 0.0 °C.

• 2) Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers : having accuracy

±0.1°C.
• (Pt100) whose base resistance is exactly 100.00 ohms at 0.0 °C.
Electrical Resistance Change (RTD)

Other RTDs
• 10 ohms Copper RTD - .00427 coefficients (-200 to 250 c)

• 100 ohms Platinum RTD - .00385 coefficients

• 100 ohms Platinum RTD - .00392 coefficients (old) (-200 to

850 c)

• 120 ohms Nickel RTD - .00672 coefficient (-80 to 300 c)

• 604 ohms 70%Nickel-30%Iron RTD - .00518 coefficients

All base resistances are specified at a temperature of 0 degrees C

A Pt1000 will have a base resistance of 1000 ohms at 0 deg. C
Resistance-Temperature Relationship
for some RTD materials

RTD Temp. Range

Platinum 100 to 650 0c Good linearity and
inertness
Nickel -180 to 430 0c Susceptible to corrosion
and oxidation
Copper -200 to 260 0c Nickel is cheapest
Tungsten -270 to 1100 0c
• Advantages:
– Fast response (1 to 10 seconds)
– High accuracy (±0.25% or +/- 0.050c)
– Resolution
• 0.001 0c upto 100 0c
• 0.01 0c from 100-850 0c
– Good repetability ± 0.020c
– Wide Temp range -200 to 6500c
• Disadvantages:
– High cost
– Larger bulb size than thermocouple
– Electrical power supply

• Application: callibration of other thermometers,

Aircrafts
• INR 1,900
Comparison of Thermistor & RTD
Thermocouples

• Principle: Seebeck Effect: discovered by Thomas Seebeck's in 1821

• When 2 dissimilar metals are joined together to form two junction
(hot and cold) & if one end is heated, there is an e.m.f produced
which is proportional to the temperature being sensed.
• Create a small voltage (5 to 6 mV @ 100°C)
• The magnitude of emf depends on the junction temperature.
• If cold junction is maintained at fixed temperature (0 0C) then e.m.f
developed can be taken as measure of hot junction temperature.

  Non linear relationship:

polynomial form
T+ +-------
Thermocouple Types: depends on thermocouple wire material

TCs are identified by a single letter type and grouped

according to their temperature range
– Base Metals – up to 1000 °C Metal usefulness:
• Melting point,
• Type J, Type E, Type T, Type K • electrical conductance,
• stability,
– Noble Metals – up to 2000 °C • repeatability,
• cost,
• Type R, Type S, Type B
• ease of handling,
• thermoelectric output
– Refractory Metals – up to 2600 °C • reaction to various
• Type C, Type D, Type G atmospheres

PEC – UET Lahore Dr. Shahid Naveed 9/2/21 / Dr. –Ing Naveed Ramzan 63
Metal Combinations
TC Colours Range C Positive Lead Negative Lead
Type (Coloured) (all Red)
J White/Red -210 to 1200 Iron Constantan
E Purple/Red -270 to1000 Chromel Constantan
T Blue/Red 0 to 400 Copper Constantan
K Yellow/Red -270 to1372 Chromel Alumel
R Black/Red -50 to 1768 Platinum-13% Platinum
rhodium
S Black/Red -50 to 1768 Platinum-10% Platinum
rhodium
B Grey/Red 0 to 1700 Platinum-30% Platinum-6% rhodium
rhodium
C White- 0 to 2320 Tungsten/5% Tungsten 26% rhenium
Red/Red rhenium

Chromel = Nickel-chromium
Alumel = Nickel-aluminum
Constantan = Copper-nickel
Response time 10 to 20 ms
Sensitivity, (E-type 0.068 mV/°C,J-type 0.05 mV /oC , K-
type 0.041 mV/oC,. Type B, R, and S: 0.010 mV/°C).
• Construction:

Lead wires connect the thermocouple to the indicating element.

• Ungrounded Junction – In ungrounded
junction, the conductors are entirely
isolated from the protective sheath. It is
used for high-pressure application works.
The major advantage of using such type of
junction is that it reduces the effect of the
stray magnetic field.
• Grounded Junction – In such type of
junction the metals and protective sheath
are welded together. The grounded
junction use for measuring the
temperature in the corrosive environment.
This junction provides resistance to the
noise.
• Exposed Junction – Such type of junction
uses in the places where fast response
requires. The exposed junction is used for
measuring the temperature of the gas
• Advantages:
– Accuracy ±1.5% for iron-constantan
– Fast response 10-20 ms
– Good accuracy & reproducibility
– Temp range -270 to 28000c
– Indicating instrument is compact (milivolt meter)
– Indicating & controlling purpose.

• Disadvantages:
– Reference junction should maintained at constant temperature.
– Electrical power supply
– Non linear temperature -e.m.f relationship
I

Price: INR 1,900
• RTDs vs Thermocouples
• The two most common ways of measuring industrial
temperatures are with resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
and thermocouples. Choice between them is usually
determined by four factors.

1. If process temperatures are between -200 to 650 °C, an

industrial RTD is the preferred option. Thermocouples have a
range of -180 to 2,320 °C (-292 to 4,208 °F),so for
temperatures above 500 °C (932 °F) they are the only contact
temperature measurement device.

2. time-response :If the process requires a very fast response to

temperature changes—fractions of a second as opposed to
seconds (e.g. 2.5 to 10 s)—then a thermocouple is the best
choice.
3. Size: A standard RTD sheath is 3.175 to 6.35
mm (0.1250 to 0.250 in) in diameter; sheath
diameters for thermocouples can be less than
1.6 mm (0.063 in).

4. If a tolerance of 2 °C is acceptable and the

highest level of repeatability is not required, a
thermocouple will serve. RTDs are capable of
higher accuracy and can maintain stability for
many years.
Pyrometer

Pyrometry is a technique for measuring high temperature

without physical contact by means of radiation emitted
by a hot body

Pyrometer: An apparatus for measuring high temperatures

that uses the radiation emitted by a hot body as a basis for
measurement.
Two types of pyrometers:

• Radiation pyrometers ( measurement of radiant energy)

• Optical Pyrometers (comparison of the intensities )
 Radiation Pyrometer
Radiation pyrometers Principle: Every material having
temperature above absolute zero temperature – emitting
thermal radiations .
According to Stefan- Boltzman Law: Amount of energy radiated
is given by

Radiant flux ie. Energy radiated per unit time from the hot
body is proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature of the body.
Hence, the temperature of the hot body measured in terms
of energy radiated.
• Out of total energy radiations having the wavelength
between (0.3-20 µm) is usable for radiation detector.

• This region covers the visible spectrum (0.3-0.75 µm) and

IR region (0.75-20 µm).

• In radiation pyrometer: visible and IR radiations is

focused on radiation detector which converts it into
proportional electrical signal, that indicates target
temperature.
•Construction:
•Lens, diaphragm, radiation receiving element, sighting hole
and recorder.
•Lens: Radiations at all possible wavelengths from hot body
are focused by lens on to the thermopile.
•Filters: are used to cut unwanted wavelength.
•Radiation receiving element: Thermopile- no. Of
thermocouples in series with its measuring junction flattened
and blackened.
 Working of radiation pyrometer:
• Radiations at all possible wavelengths from hot body are
focused by lens on to the blackened measuring junction of
thermopile.

• Due to absorption of radiations, temperature of measuring

junction rises.

• According to Seebeck effect, e.m.f is developed due to

temperature difference between reference and measuring
junction.

• E.m.f developed can be calibrated in terms of temperature.

• Advantages:
– Do not require physical contacts
– temperature measurement accuracy to ± 0.5%
– Used when difficult to access for other sensors.

• Limitations:
– If substances like smoke, dirt & gases present in the space
between target & receiver may absorb the radiation : results
in lower temperature.
– Distance between target and receiver should not be greater
than 10 times the maximum useful diameter of target,
otherwise insufficient radiations received from target that
results in error
– Non linear scale.
– More costlier & fragile than RTD & thermocouple.
Radiation Pyrometer

Optical pyrometers Principle: (600 to 3000 °C)

• Spectral radiant intensity of radiated energy from heated body
at a given wavelength is proportional to the temperature of the
body.
• Hence, the temperature of the hot body can be measured in
terms of intensity of radiations at certain wavelength.

• Allowing the operator to compare the intensity of light radiated

from a target at visible .655µm wavelength to the known
brightness of an internal calibrated lamp.

• The optical system contains filters that restrict the wavelength-

sensitivity of the devices to a narrow wavelength band around
0.65 to 0.66 microns (the red region of the visible spectrum).
 Construction:

• Similar to telescope having objective at one end and eyepiece

at other end.
• A red filter is placed between eye and the two sources of
energy: passes only 0.65 µm radiations.
• A filament acts as standard source of energy: placed exactly
at the focus of the objective, so that image of hot target is
focused on plane of filament.
• So that target image and filament lamp appears
superimposed on each other when viewed through eyepiece.
• A 2 volt battery and rheostat is connected in series with lamp.
• A intensity of filament lamp can be varied by varying current
through it.
 Working of optical pyrometer:
• The radiation from the source are focused onto the filament of the
reference temperature lamp using the objective lens.
• Now the eye piece is adjusted so that the filament of the reference
temperature lamp is in sharp focus and the filament is seen super
imposed on the image of the temperature source.

• Now the observer starts controlling the lamp current and

• the filament will appear dark as in figure (a) if the filament is
cooler than the temperature source,
• the filament will appear bright as in figure (b) if the filament is
hotter than the temperature source,
• the filament will not be seen as in figure (c) if the filament and
temperature source are in the same temperature.
• Hence the observer should control the lamp current until
the filament and the temperature source have the same
brightness which will be noticed when the filament
disappears as in figure (c) in the superimposed image of
the temperature source [ that is the brightness of the
lamp and the temperature source are same].

• At the instance, the current flowing through the lamp

which is indicated by the millivoltmeter connected to the
lamp becomes a measure of the temperature of the
temperature source when calibrated.
• In steel industry
to measure the
temperature of
molten iron in
casting channels
 Quartz Thermometer
•  It measures temperature by measuring the frequency of a 
quartz crystal oscillator.
• Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1965, the successor
company,  
• A crystal oscillator is made up of quartz crystal, works by
being distorted by an electric field when voltage is applied to
an electrode near or on the crystal and which oscillates in a
precise frequency. This property is known as electrostriction.
• As the temperature around the crystal changes, frequency of
vibration of crystal varies linearly with temperature
according to equation
• f= f0 (1+ AT+BT2+CT3)
• f -actual resonant frequency, A,B,C – are constants
• f0 = fundamental frequency at a reference temperature
 Construction of quartz sensor
• The temperature-sensing element consists of a quartz
crystal enclosed within a probe (sheath).
• The probe commonly consists of a stainless steel cylinder with
helium atmosphere, which makes
the device physically larger than devices like thermocouples
 and resistance thermometers.
• The crystal is connected electrically so as to form the resonant
element within an electronic oscillator.

• Measurement of the oscillator frequency therefore allows the

measured temperature to be calculated.
 Advantages of quartz sensor
• The instrument has a very linear output characteristic over the
temperature range between -40°C and 230°C, with a typical
inaccuracy of 0.1% full scale.
• High sensitivity 1000Hz/0C.
• Measurement resolution is typically 0.001°C.
• Output is in digital form which is insensitive to signal to noise
ratio
• Fast speed of response (10 sec)
• Long term stability
• to make measurements through connecting wires at distances
of up to 10,000 feet, with no adverse effect on measurement
accuracy
• However, it is very expensive, with a typical cost of £3000
($5000).
 Fibre Optical Sensor
• Fibre sensor: geophysical exploration/ monitoring (remote
sensing applications)
• Used to detect certain quantities such as
– mechanical strain or temperature,
– concentrations of chemical species,
– pressure, vibrations and flow.
• The downhole part of this system consists of fibers with
gratings
• The surface parts include an optical source, detectors,
optical couplers and a computer for processing.
 Working Principle of Fiber Optic Sensors
• Fiber optic sensors work based on the principle that light from a laser
or any superluminescent source is transmitted via an optical fiber,
experiences changes in its parameters either intensity, phase,
wavelength or transit time of light and reaches a detector which
measures these changes.

• The fiber optic cable consists of a glass or plastic core surrounded by

a layer made of cladding material.

• The difference in densities between the core and the layer enables the
cables to act based on the total internal reflection principle, which
states that the light striking a boundary between two components will
be totally reflected without any loss in light energy.
• The reflected light is then transmitted to a sensor/detector that
converts the light energy into an electrical signal.
 Downhole Measurement System of Temperature

• Hill et al. (1978) first presented

the concept of the fiber Bragg
grating (FBG)
• A fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is a
type of distributed Bragg reflector
 constructed in a short segment of 
optical fiber that reflects
particular wavelengths of light and
transmits all others. 
• distributed Bragg reflector
: multiple layers of alternating
materials with varying refractive
index
• The reflected wavelength called Bragg wavelength λB is;
• where n is the effective refractive index of the fiber core
and Λ is the grating period λB = 2nΛ
• Sensing is based on the Bragg wavelength shifting in
response to applied strain, temperature & pressure
changes.
 Downhole FBG sensors
• Four FBG sensors are
mounted in the shell, two
of which are for pressure
& temperature
measurement, and the
others are for flow
measurement.
• An optical source at 1.55
μm, optical couplers for
spliting the light, fiber
interferometers for
detection of the Bragg
wavelength-shift and a PC
for signal processing are
used in the surface part.
 Advantages of Fiber Optic Sensors
• Fiber optic sensors are small and light weight.
• Resistant to high temperature and explosive/corrosive
environments. (260-30000C)
• Response time 0.3 sec or better
• Accuracy ±1% full scale
• Cost $2000-4000
• They possess electrically insulating material which also make
them suitable for use in applications subject to high voltages
and there are no risks of electrical sparks.
• In addition to this fiber optic sensors are very resistant to
electromagnetic and radio frequency interference.
• They are highly sensitive, have excellent range and resolution
and multiplexing capabilities.
 Applications of FBG
• Fiber Bragg gratings are finding uses in instrumentation
applications such as 
– seismology, pressure sensors for extremely harsh
environments, and
– downhole sensors in oil and gas wells for measurement of
the effects of external pressure, temperature, seismic
vibrations and inline flow measurement ( 0 – 50 MPa and 20
– 300 deg-C). 
– they can also be used as transduction elements, converting
the output of another sensor, which generates a strain or
temperature change from the measurand.
– in dams they can detect and monitor leakages, foundation
defects and measure spatial displacement.
 Selection of Temperature Sensors
• Temperature range
• Sensitivity, accuracy
• Recorder, indicator or controller
• Speed of response
• Remote or local indication
• Charactristrics of bath fluid: corrosive,
oxidising, reducing.
 COURSE OUTCOMES:
• At the end of this course the learner will
– Be able to classify and calibrate the measuring instruments
based on requirement and process dynamics.
– Be able to select the proper instrument based on the
principle, working and construction for measuring process
variables such as temperature, pressure, level, etc.
– To be able to select the appropriate flow measuring device
and control valve for better flow regulation.
– Be able to choose the relevant analytical technique for the
chemical analysis of samples using standard test methods.
– Be able to describe working of various spectroscopic and
chromatographic instruments along with the interpretation of
the data obtained from them.
– To understand the methods used for lubricant analysis.
 Unit Objectives
• Understand the importance of measurement of these
process variables

• Describe the classification of temeprature, pressure

and level measurng instrument.

• Principle of working, construction, range of operation

and applications of these instruments.