Chapter – 2: Basic Cell Physiology

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Human Physiology

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Human Physiology

Cell (Smallest unit of the

body)

Tissue (Group of cell having

similar function)

Organ (Structure which is

formed by two or more primary
type of Tissues)

System (group of organs that

work together to carry out
specific functions)
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Cell

 All the living things are composed of cells.

 A single cell is the smallest unit that has all the characteristics of life.
 Cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of the living body.
General Characteristics of Cell
Each cell in the body:
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen
2. Produces its own energy necessary for its growth, repair and other activities
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its survival
5. Shows immediate response to the entry of invaders like bacteria or toxic substances into the
body
6. Reproduces by division. There are some exceptions like neuron, which do not reproduce.
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Cell Physiology

 The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of the body.
 The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
 Different types of cells of the body possess features which distinguish one type from the
other, and are specially adapted to perform particular functions.

Examples:

 The red blood cells transport oxygen from lungs to the tissues.
 Muscle cell is specialized for the function of contraction.

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Cell Structure

A typical cell, as seen by the light microscope, consists of three basic components;

 Cell membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Nucleus

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Functions of the cell membrane

 Cell membrane

 Cell membrane is a protective sheath, enveloping the cell body. It is also known as plasma
membrane or plasmalemma.
 The cell membrane envelops the cell and is a thin, pliable, elastic structure only 7.5 to 10
nanometers thick

Cell membrane is composed of three types of substances:

1. Proteins (55%)
2. Lipids (40%)
3. Carbohydrates (5%).

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Functions of the cell membrane

1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the organelles present in the
cytoplasm
2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a semipermeable membrane, which allows
only some substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other substances
3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the cell membrane
4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products from the cell are excreted out
through the cell membrane
5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the cell
and enters the blood through the cell membrane
6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell membrane is responsible for the maintenance
of shape and size of the cell.
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 CYTOPLASM

 Cytoplasm of the cell is the jellylike material formed by 80% of water. It contains a
clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles of different shape and size.
 Particles are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or electrolytes in nature.

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 NUCLEUS

 The nucleus, which is the control center of the cell, sends messages to the cell to grow and
mature, to replicate, or to die.
 Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle
 It has a diameter of 10 μ to 22 μ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell.
 The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those without nucleus are known as
prokaryotes.
 Presence of nucleus is necessary for cell division. Most of the cells have only one nucleus
(uninucleated cells). Few types of cells like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei
(multinucleated cells). 11
Structure of Nucleus

• Nucleus is covered by a membrane called

nuclear membrane and contains many
components.
• Major components of nucleus are
nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus
 Nuclear Membrane
 Nuclear membrane is double layered and porous in nature. This allows the nucleoplasm to
communicate with the cytoplasm.
 Pores of the nuclear membrane are guarded (lined) by protein molecules.
 Exchange of materials between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm occurs through these pores.
 Nucleoplasm
 Nucleoplasm is a highly viscous fluid that forms the ground substance of the nucleus. It is
similar to cytoplasm present outside the nucleus.
 Nucleoplasm surrounds chromatin and nucleolus. It contains dense fibrillar network of
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proteins called the nuclear matrix and many substances such as nucleotides and enzymes.
 Chromatin

 Chromatin is a thread-like material made up of large molecules of DNA. The DNA

molecules are compactly packed with the help of a specialized basic protein called histone.
 So, chromatin is referred as DNA-histone complex. It forms the major bulk of nuclear
material.
 Nucleolus
 Nucleolus is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus.
 The nucleolus contains RNA and some proteins.
 The RNA is synthesized by five different pairs of chromosomes and stored in the nucleolus.
 Later, it is condensed to form the subunits of ribosomes. All the subunits formed in the
nucleolus are transported to cytoplasm through the pores of nuclear membrane.
 In the cytoplasm, these subunits fuse to form ribosomes, which play an essential role in the
formation of proteins. 13
 FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS

1. Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein synthesis, growth and
reproduction (cell division)
2. Synthesis of RNA
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes
4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis through messenger RNA
(mRNA)
5. Control of the cell division through genes
6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of this information from one
generation of the species to the next.
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Blood

 Blood is a connective tissue in fluid form

 It is considered as the ‘fluid of life’ because it carries oxygen from lungs to all parts of the
body and carbon dioxide from all parts of the body to the lungs.
 It is known as ‘fluid of growth’ because it carries nutritive substances from the digestive
system and hormones from endocrine gland to all the tissues.
 The blood is also called the ‘fluid of health’ because it protects the body against the
diseases and gets rid of the waste products and unwanted substances by transporting them
to the excretory organs like kidneys.

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 PROPERTIES OF BLOOD

1. Color: Blood is red in color.

2. Volume: Average volume of blood in a normal adult is 5L, in a newborn baby, the
volume is 450 ml, in females, it is slightly less and is about 4.5 L.
3. Reaction and pH: Blood is slightly alkaline and its pH in normal conditions is 7.4.
4. Specific gravity:
Specific gravity of total blood : 1.052 to 1.061
Specific gravity blood cells : 1.092 to 1.101
Specific gravity of plasma : 1.022 to 1.026
5. Viscosity: Blood is five times more viscous than water
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Composition of Blood

 Blood contains the blood cells which are called formed elements and the liquid portion
known as plasma.

Formed Elements :
1. Red blood cells or erythrocytes
2. White blood cells or leukocytes
3. Platelets or thrombocytes.

Plasma :
1. Water - 92-93%
2. Solids – 7-8% (organic and inorganic)
3. Gases

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Formed Elements

1. Red blood cells or Erythrocytes

 Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
 A healthy adult man has, on an average, 5 millions to 5.5 millions of RBCs mm–3 of blood
 RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in the adults.
 They have a red colored, iron containing complex protein called hemoglobin, hence the
color and name of these cells.
 A healthy individual has 12-16 gms of hemoglobin in every 100 ml of blood.
 These molecules play a significant role in transport of respiratory gases. RBCs have an
average life span of 120 days
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2. White blood cells or Leucocytes

 They are colorless due to the lack of hemoglobin

 They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in number which averages 6000-8000 mm–3
of blood
 Leucocytes are generally short lived
 Compared to RBCs, the WBCs are larger in size and lesser in number.
 These cells are important like RBCs because of their role in defense mechanism of body
and protect the body from invading organisms by acting like soldiers.

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Difference between WBCs and RBCs

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3. Platelets or thrombocytes:

 Platelets or thrombocytes are the formed elements of blood.

 Platelets are small colorless, non-nucleated and moderately refractive bodies.
 These formed elements of blood are considered to be the fragments of cytoplasm

Size of Platelets
Diameter : 2.5 μ (2 to 4 μ)
Volume : 7.5 cu μ (7 to 8 cu μ).

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 FUNCTIONS OF PLATELETS

1. ROLE IN BLOOD CLOTTING

2. ROLE IN CLOT RETRACTION

3. ROLE IN PREVENTION OF BLOOD LOSS

4. ROLE IN REPAIR OF RUPTURED BLOOD VESSEL

5. ROLE IN DEFENSE MECHANISM

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Plasma

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Plasma

 Fibrinogen, globulins and albumins are the major proteins

 Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.
 Globulins are involved in defense mechanisms of the body and the albumins help in
osmotic balance.
 Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum
 Plasma proteins provide viscosity to the blood, which is important to maintain the blood
pressure. Albumin provides maximum viscosity than the other plasma proteins.

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FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

1. NUTRITIVE FUNCTION

Nutritive substances like glucose, amino acids, lipids and vitamins derived from digested
food are absorbed from gastrointestinal tract and carried by blood to different parts of the body
for growth and production of energy.
2. RESPIRATORY FUNCTION
Transport of respiratory gases is done by the blood. It carries oxygen from lungs to different
tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues.
3. EXCRETORY FUNCTION
Waste products formed in the tissues during various metabolic activities are removed by blood
and carried to the excretory organs like kidney, skin, liver, etc. for excretion
4. TRANSPORT OF HORMONES AND ENZYMES
Hormones which are secreted by ductless (endocrine) glands are released directly into the
blood. The blood transports these hormones to their target organs/tissues. Blood also transports
enzymes.
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5. REGULATION OF WATER BALANCE
Water content of the blood is freely interchangeable with interstitial fluid. This helps in the
regulation of water content of the body.

6. REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE

Plasma proteins and hemoglobin act as buffers and help in the regulation of acid-base balance.

7. REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE

Because of the high specific heat of blood, it is responsible for maintaining the
thermoregulatory mechanism in the body, i.e. the balance between heat loss and heat gain in
the body.

8. STORAGE FUNCTION
Water and some important substances like proteins, glucose, sodium and potassium are
constantly required by the tissues. Blood serves as a readymade source for these substances.
And, these substances are taken from blood during the conditions like starvation, fluid loss,
electrolyte loss, etc. 26
 DEFENSIVE FUNCTION
Blood plays an important role in the defense of the body. The white blood cells are responsible
for this function. Lymphocytes are involved in development of immunity.

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Blood Group

 Group ‘O’ blood can be donated to persons with any other blood group and hence ‘O’
group individuals are called ‘universal donors’.
 Persons with ‘AB’ group can accept blood from persons with AB as well as the other
groups of blood. Therefore, such persons are called ‘universal recipients’

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Lymph (Tissue Fluid)
 Lymph is a colorless fluid containing specialized lymphocytes which are responsible for the
immune responses of the body. Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones,
etc. Fats are absorbed through lymph
 Usually, lymph is a clear and colorless fluid. It is formed by 96% water and 4% solids. Some
blood cells are also present in lymph
 About 120 mL of lymph flows into blood per hour
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH

1. Important function of lymph is to return the proteins from tissue spaces into blood.
2. It is responsible for re-distribution of fluid in the body.
3. Bacteria, toxins and other foreign bodies are removed from tissues via lymph.
4. Lymph flow is responsible for the maintenance of structural and functional integrity of
tissue.
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5. Lymph flow serves as an important route for intestinal fat absorption.
Circulatory System

The function of the circulation is;

 To serve the needs of the body tissues
 To transport nutrients to the body tissues
 To transport waste products away
 To transport hormones from one part of the body
 To maintain an appropriate environment in all the tissue
fluids of the body for survival and optimal function of the
cells.

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 The circulation is divided into the systemic
circulation and the pulmonary circulation.
 Because the systemic circulation supplies blood flow
to all the tissues of the body except the lungs, it is
also called the greater circulation or peripheral
circulation.
 The function of the arteries is to transport blood
under high pressure to the tissues.
For this reason, the arteries have strong vascular walls,
and blood flows at a high velocity in the arteries.

 The arterioles are the last small branches of the

arterial system; they act as control conduits through
which blood is released into the capillaries
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 The function of the capillaries is to exchange fluid, nutrients, electrolytes, hormones, and
other substances between the blood and the interstitial fluid.
To serve this role, the capillary walls are thin and have numerous minute capillary pores
 The venules collect blood from the capillaries and gradually coalesce into progressively larger
veins
 The veins function as conduits for transport of blood from the venules back to the heart;
equally important, they serve as a major reservoir of extra blood

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Cardiovascular System

 Cardiovascular system includes heart and blood vessels.

 Heart pumps blood into the blood vessels. Blood vessels circulate the blood throughout the
body.
 Blood transports nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and removes carbon dioxide and waste
products from the tissues

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Heart

 Heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the circulatory system.

 It is situated in between two lungs in the mediastinum.

 It is made up of four chambers, two atria and two ventricles.

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Heart

The heart is two separate

pumps:
 Right heart that
pumps blood through
the lungs
 Left heart that pumps
blood through the
systemic circulation
that provides blood
flow to the other
organs and tissues of
the body.

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 In turn, each of these hearts is a pulsatile two-chamber pump composed of an atrium and a ventricle.
Each atrium is a weak primer pump for the ventricle, helping to move blood into the ventricle. The ventricles
then supply the main pumping force that propels the blood either (1) through the pulmonary circulation by
the right ventricle or (2) through the systemic circulation by the left ventricle.
Special mechanisms in the heart cause a continuing succession of heart contractions called cardiac
rhythmicity, transmitting action potentials throughout the cardiac muscle to cause the heart’s rhythmical beat

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Normal Blood Pressure in different Portions

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Respiratory System

 Respiration is the process by which oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out. The
first breath takes place only after birth.

 TYPES OF RESPIRATION

Respiration is classified into two types:

1. External respiration that involves exchange of respiratory gases, i.e. oxygen and
carbon dioxide between lungs and blood
2. Internal respiration, which involves exchange of gases between blood and tissues.
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Functions of Respiration

1. Supplies the body with oxygen and disposes

of carbon dioxide
2. Filters inspired air
3. Produces sound
4. Contains receptors for smell
5. Rids the body of some excess water and heat
6. Helps regulate blood pH

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 We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the
upper lips, It leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal
passage.
 The nasal chamber opens into nasopharynx, which is a
portion of pharynx, the common passage for food and air
 Nasopharynx opens through glottis of the larynx region into
the trachea.
 Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound
production and hence called the sound box
 During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin elastic
cartilaginous flap called epiglottis to prevent the entry of
food into the larynx.
 Trachea is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic
cavity which divides into a right and left primary bronchi
 bronchi undergoes repeated divisions and forms bronchioles
 Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of very thin,
irregular walled and vascularized bag-like structures called
alveoli.
 The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
comprise the lungs

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Mechanism of Breathing

 PHASES OF RESPIRATION

Respiration occurs in two phases:

1. Inspiration during which air enters the lungs from atmosphere

2. Expiration during which air leaves the lungs.

During normal breathing, inspiration is an active process and expiration is a passive
process.

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Inspiration

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Expiration

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Gastro-intestinal System (Digestive System)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X3TAROotFfM

 Digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down into simple chemical
substances that can be absorbed and used as nutrients by the body

 Digestive process is accomplished by mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food into

simpler chemical compounds.

 A normal young healthy adult consumes about 1 kg of solid diet and about 1 to 2 liter of
liquid diet every day.

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Functions of digestive system

1. Ingestion or consumption of food substances

2. Breaking them into small particles
3. Transport of small particles to different areas of the digestive tract
4. Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion
5. Digestion of the food particles
6. Absorption of the digestive products (nutrients)
7. Removal of unwanted substances from the body.

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ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive system is made up of gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or alimentary

canal and accessory organs, which help in the process of digestion and
absorption
1. Primary Digestive Organs 2. Accessory Digestive Organs
Primary digestive organs are the organs Accessory digestive organs are those which
where actual digestion takes place. help primary
Primary digestive organs are: digestive organs in the process of
i. Mouth digestion.
ii. Pharynx Accessory digestive organs are:
iii. Esophagus i. Teeth
iv. Stomach ii. Tongue
v. Small intestine iii. Salivary glands
vi. Large intestine. iv. Exocrine part of pancreas
v. Liver
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vi. Gallbladder.
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Kidney and Excretory System https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zAczdDFyglA

 Excretion is the process by which the unwanted substances and metabolic

wastes are eliminated from the body
 A large amount of waste materials and carbon dioxide are produced in the
tissues during metabolic process.
 In addition, residue of undigested food, heavy metals, drugs, toxic substances
and pathogenic organisms like bacteria are also present in the body
 All these substances must be removed to keep the body in healthy condition

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Various systems/organs in the body are involved in performing the excretory
function, viz.
1. Digestive system excretes food residues in the form of feces. Some bacteria and
toxic substances also are excreted
2. Lungs remove carbon dioxide and water vapor
3. Skin excretes water, salts and some wastes. It also removes heat from the body
4. Liver excretes many substances like bile pigments, heavy metals, drugs, toxins,
bacteria, etc. through bile.
 Although various organs are involved in removal of wastes from the body, their excretory capacity is
limited.
 But renal system or urinary system has maximum excretory capacity and so it plays a major role.
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Renal system includes:

1. A pair of kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra

 Kidneys produce the urine.

 Ureters transport the urine to urinary
bladder.
 Urinary bladder stores the urine until it is
voided (emptied).
 Urine is voided from bladder through
urethra 54
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF KIDNEY
 Kidneys are reddish brown, bean
shaped structures
 Each kidney of an adult human
measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in
width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an
average weight of 120- 170 g.
 Towards the center of the inner concave
surface of the kidney is a notch called
hilum
 Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel
shaped space called the renal pelvis
with projections called calyces.
 The outer layer of kidney is a tough
capsule.
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 Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
 The medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids)
projecting into the calyces
 The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called
Columns of Bertini
 Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons,
which are the functional units
 Each nephron has two parts – the glomerulus and the renal tubule.
 Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole – a fine
branch of renal artery. Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by an efferent
arteriole.
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Functions of Kidney

Kidneys perform several vital functions besides formation of urine.

1. ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS
i. Excretion of Waste Products
ii. Maintenance of Water Balance
iii. Maintenance of Electrolyte Balance
iv. Maintenance of Acid–Base Balance
2. REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE
3. REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL
4. HEMOPOIETIC FUNCTION (Kidneys stimulate the production of erythrocytes by secreting erythropoietin)
5. ENDOCRINE FUNCTION (Kidneys secrete many hormonal substances)

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Nervous System

 Nervous system controls all the

activities of the body. It is
quicker than other control
system in the body, namely
endocrine system.

 Primarily, nervous system is

divided into two parts:
1. Central nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system.

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Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal
cord. It is formed by neurons and supporting cells called
neuroglia.
Structures of brain and spinal cord are arranged in two layers,
namely gray matter and white matter.

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Human Physiology

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Human Physiology

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Human Physiology

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Human Physiology

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Human Physiology

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