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Electric Circuits
Electric Circuits
Electric Circuits
Learning Objectives
Electric circuits
Current, resistance, power
Students should understand the definition of electric
current, so they can relate the magnitude and direction of
the current to the rate of flow of positive and negative
charge.
Students should understand conductivity, resistivity, and
resistance, so they can:
Relate current and voltage for a resistor.
Describe how the resistance of a resistor depends upon
its length and cross-sectional area, and apply this
result in comparing current flow in resistors of different
material or different geometry.
Apply the relationships for the rate of heat production in
a resistor.
Learning Objectives
Steady-state direct current circuits with batteries and
resistors only
Students should understand the behavior of series and
parallel combinations of resistors, so they can:
Identify on a circuit diagram whether resistors are in
series or in parallel.
Determine the ratio of the voltages across resistors
connected in series or the ratio of the currents through
resistors connected in parallel.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of a network of
resistors that can be broken down into series and
parallel combinations.
Calculate the voltage, current, and power dissipation for
any resistor in such a network of resistors connected to
a single power supply.
Design a simple series-parallel circuit that produces a
given current through and potential difference across
one specified component, and draw a diagram for
the circuit using conventional symbols.
Learning Objectives
Steady-state direct current circuits with batteries and
resistors only
Students should understand the properties of ideal and real
batteries, so they can:
Calculate the terminal voltage of a battery of specified
emf and internal resistance from which a known current
is flowing.
Students should be able to apply Ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s rules to direct-current circuits, in order to:
determine a single unknown current, voltage, or resistance.
Students should understand the properties of voltmeters
and ammeters, so they can:
State whether the resistance of each is high or low.
Identify or show correct methods of connecting meters
into circuits in order to measure voltage or current.
Learning Objectives
Capacitors in circuits
Students should understand the t = 0 and steady-state
behavior of capacitors connected in series or in parallel, so
they can:
Calculate the equivalent capacitance of a series or
parallel combination.
Describe how stored charge is divided between
capacitors connected in parallel.
Determine the ratio of voltages for capacitors connected
in series.
Calculate the voltage or stored charge, under steady-
state conditions, for a capacitor connected to a
circuit consisting of a battery and resistors.
Table of Contents
1. Electromotive Force and Current
2. Ohm’s Law
3. Resistance & Resistivity
4. Electric Power
5. Alternating Current (Not AP)
6. Series Wiring
7. Parallel Wiring
8. Series and Parallel Wiring
9. Internal Resistance
10. Kirchoff’s Rules
11. The Measurement of Current and Voltage
12. Capacitors in Series and Parallel Circuits
13. RC Circuits (Not AP)
14. Safety and the Physiological Effects of Current (Not AP)
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 1:
Electromotive Force & Current
Electric Circuits
In an electric circuit, an energy source and an energy
consuming device are connected by conducting wires through
which electric charges move.
Electromotive Force
Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs that transfers
electrons from one terminal to another terminal.
The maximum potential difference across the terminals is
called the electromotive force (emf).
Electric Current
The electric current is the amount of charge per unit time
that passes through a surface that is perpendicular to the
motion of the charges.
I avg Q
t
One coulomb per second equals one ampere (A).
Types of Current
The current in a 3.0 V battery of a pocket calculator is 0.17 mA. In one hour
of operation, (a) how much charge flows in the circuit and (b) how much energy
does the battery deliver to the calculator circuit?
(a) I avg Q
t
Q I t 0.17 10 A
3
3600 s 0.61
C
(b)
U QV 0.61 C3.0 V 1.8 J
Direction of Current
Conventional current is the hypothetical flow of positive
charges that would have the same effect in the circuit as the
movement of negative charges that actually does occur.
20.1.1. In which one of the following situations does a conventional
electric current flow due north?
V I V IR
V IR
V
R 3.0 7.5
I
0.40VA
20.2.1. In a certain circuit containing a battery and a resistor, Ohm’s law is obeyed.
An instrument to measure the current in the circuit, an ammeter, is connected in
between one of the terminals of the battery and one end of the resistor. The ammeter
indicates that the current in the circuit is I. The battery is then removed and replaced
with another battery. This time, the ammeter indicates the current is 2I. Which one of
the following statements concerning the resistor is true?
a) When the second battery was placed in the circuit, the resistance increased to twice its
initial value.
b) When the second battery was placed in the circuit, the resistance decreased to one half its
initial value.
c) When the second battery was placed in the circuit, the resistance increased to four times
its initial value.
d) When the second battery was placed in the circuit, the resistance increased to one fourth
its initial value.
e) When the second battery was placed in the circuit, the resistance did not change.
20.2.2. Consider the circuit containing a battery and a resistor shown.
For which one of the following combinations of current and
voltage does R have the smallest value?
a) V = 9 V and I = 0.002 A
b) V = 12 V and I = 0.5 A
d) V = 6 V and I = 0.1 A
L
R
A
The instructions for an electric lawn mower suggest that a 20-gauge extension
cord can be used for distances up to 35 m, but a thicker 16-gauge cord should
be used for longer distances. The cross sectional area of a
20-gauge wire is 5.2x10-7Ω·m, while that of a 16-gauge wire is 13x10-7 Ω·m.
Determine the resistance of (a) 35 m of 20-gauge copper wire and (b) 75 m of
16-gauge copper wire.
(a)
R
L
1.72 10 m 35
8
1.2
A 5.2 10-7 m 2
m
R
L 1.72 10 m75 m
(b) 8
0.99
A 1310 m
-7 2
Temperature Effects
o 1 T To
temperature coefficient
of resistivity
R Ro 1 T To
20.3.1. For which combination for the length L and radius R of a wire
will the resistance have the smallest value?
P
U
qV q
t V IV
t
power
t time
Electric Power
When there is current in a circuit as a result of a voltage, the
electric power delivered to the circuit is:
P IV
P I IR I 2
R
2
V V
P V R
R
Example 5 The Power and Energy Used in a
Flashlight
(a)
P IV 0.40 A3.0 V 1.2 W
J
20.4.1. An automatic coffee maker uses a resistive heating element to boil
the 2.4 kg of water that was poured into it at 21 C. The current
delivered to the coffee pot is 8.5 A when it is plugged into a 120 V
electrical outlet. If the specific heat capacity of water is 4186
J/kgC, approximately how long does it take to boil all of the water?
a) 5 minutes
b) 8 minutes
c) 10 minutes
d) 13 minutes
e) 15 minutes
20.4.2. The insulated wiring in a house can safely carry a maximum current
of 18 A. The electrical outlets in the house provide an alternating
voltage of 120 V. A space heater when plugged into the outlet
operates at an average power of 1500 W. How many space heaters
can safely be plugged into a single electrical outlet and turned on for
an extended period of time?
a) zero
b) one
c) two
d) three
e) four
20.4.3. A portable CD player was recently introduced that has a
“special power saving technology.” The manufacturer claims
that with only two standard AA batteries (together: 3.0 V, 20 kJ
energy storage) that the player can be played for about 25 hours.
What is the approximate resistance in the CD player’s electrical
circuitry?
a) 41
b) 0.010
c) 300
d) 1.5
e) 15
20.4.4. A wire is used as a heating element that has a resistance that is
fairly independent of its temperature within its operating range.
When a current I is applied to the wire, the energy delivered by the
heater each minute is E. For what amount of current will the
energy delivered by the heater each minute be 4E?
a) 2I
b) 4I
c) 0.5I
d) 0.25I
e) 8I
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 5:
Alternating
Current
In an AC circuit, the charge flow reverses direction periodically.
V Vo sin2 ft
In circuits that contain only resistance, the current reverses direction
each time the polarity of the generator reverses.
I V Vo ft oI ft
sin2R R sin2
peak current
I I o sin2 ft V Vo sin 2 ft
P IV I oVo 2
2 ft
sin
IoVo o
Vo
P 2
2 2 I rms rms
I V
Vrms Irms R
P Vrms Irms
P Irms
2
P
V2
rms
R
Example 6 Electrical Power Sent to a
Loudspeaker
During the winter, many people use portable electric space heaters to keep
warm. Sometimes, however, the heater must be located far from a 120-V wall
receptacle, so an extension cord must be used. However, manufacturers often
warn against using an extension cord. If one must be used, they recommend
a certain wire gauge, or smaller. Why the warning, and why are smaller-gauge
wires better then larger-gauge wires?
20.5.1. The graph shows the current as a function of time for an
electrical device plugged into a outlet with an rms voltage of 120
V. What is the resistance of the device?
a) 24
b) 21
c) 17
d) 14
e) 12
20.5.2. Consider the circuits shown in parts A and B in the picture. In part A, a light bulb is
plugged into a wall outlet that has an rms voltage of 120 volts. A current I passes through the
circuit and the bulb turns on. In part B, a second, identical light bulb is connected in series in
the circuit. How does the current in circuit B compare with that in circuit A?
V V1 V2 IR1 IR2 I R
1 R2 S
IR
RS R1 R2 R3
Series resistors
RS
Example 8 Resistors in a Series Circuit
A 6.00 Ω resistor and a 3.00 Ω resistor are connected in series with a 12.0 V
battery. Assuming the battery contributes no resistance to the circuit, find
(a) the current, (b) the power dissipated in each resistor, and (c) the total
power delivered to the resistors by the battery.
(a)
I I1 I 2 V V V 1 1 V 1
R1 R2 R1 R2 RP
parallel resistors…
1 1 1 1 1 1
RP
i
RP R1 R2
Ri
R3
Simplifying Circuits
R1 = 5 Ω
R2 = 3
Ω
5
1 1 1 1
RP
i R 1 R2
Ri OR
1 R2 R1
R RRR1R2 RTotal
R R15
R35
2
1 2
3
R 1.89 0
Example 10 Main and Remote Stereo Speakers
a) R1 and R2
b) R1 and R3
c) R2 and R3
d) R1 and R2 and R3
a) I3 < I1
b) I3 = I1
c) I3 > I1
a) 21
b) 7
c) 11
d) 14
e) 19
What is the resistance between x and y?
R R R
x y
Resistance = 3 R
What is the resistance between x and y?
R R R
a
x y
Resistance = R
What is the resistance between x and y?
R R R
x b y
Resistance = R
What is the resistance between x and y?
R R R
a
x b y
Redraw the circuit
R R R
a
x b y
R
x
R
b a
R
y
What is the resistance between x and y?
R
x
R
b a
R
y
R
Resistance 3
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 9:
Internal Resistance
Internal Resistance
Batteries and generators add some resistance to a circuit.
This resistance is called internal resistance.
The actual voltage between the terminals of a battery is
known as the terminal voltage.
Example 12 The Terminal Voltage of a Battery
(a)
V Ir 10.0 A0.010 0.10 V
a) 0.002
b) 0.08
c) 0.1
d) 0.3
e) 0.6
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 10:
Kirchoff’s Rules
Loop Rule
The loop rule expresses conservation of energy in terms of
the electric potential.
States that for a closed circuit loop, the total of all potential
rises is the same as the total of all potential drops.
Junction Rule
Conservation of mass
Electrons entering must equal the
electrons leaving
The junction rule states that the total
current directed into a junction must
equal the total current directed out of
the junction.
Example 14 Using Kirchhoff’s Loop
Rule
V i 0
i
Vbattery V1 V2 V3
I 12 6.0 V I 8.0
24 V
potential rises
potential drops
I 0.90 A
Reasoning Strategy
Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules
1. Draw the current in each branch of the circuit. Choose any
direction. If your choice is incorrect, the value obtained for
the current will turn out to be a negative number.
2. Mark each resistor with a + at one end and a – at the other
end in a way that is consistent with your choice for current
direction in step 1. Outside a battery, conventional
current is always directed from a higher potential (the end
marked +) to a lower potential (the end marked -).
3. Apply the junction rule and the loop rule to the circuit,
obtaining in the process as many independent equations as
there are unknown variables.
4. Solve these equations simultaneously for the unknown
variables.
20.10.1. What is the current through the 4- resistor in this circuit?
a) 0.67 A
b) 0.75 A
c) 1.0 A
d) 1.3 A
e) 1.5 A
20.10.2. What is the current through the 1- resistor in this
circuit?
a) 2.8 A
b) 3.0 A
c) 3.4 A
d) 4.3 A
e) 4.8 A
20.10.3. Which one of the following equations is not correct
relative to the other four equations determined by applying
Kirchoff’s Rules to the circuit shown?
a) I2 = I1 + I4
b) I2 = I3 + I5
c) 6 V (8 ) I1 (5 ) I2 (4 ) I3 = 0
d) 6 V (6 ) I4 (5 ) I2 (2 ) I5 = 0
e) 6 V (8 ) I1 (6 ) I4 6 V (2 ) I5 (4 ) I3 = 0
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 11:
The Measurement of
Current and Voltage
A dc galvanometer. The coil of
wire and pointer rotate when there
is a current in the wire.
An ammeter must be inserted into
a circuit so that the current passes
directly through it.
If a galvanometer with a full-scale
limit of 0.100 mA is to be used to
measure the current of 60.0 mA, a
shunt resistance must be used so that
the excess current of 59.9 mA can
detour around the galvanometer coil.
To measure the voltage between two points
in a circuit, a voltmeter is connected between
the points.
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 12:
Capacitors in series and in parallel
Capacitors in Parallel
Voltage is the same on each side of the circuit
Charges on each capacitor directly add
C P Ci
Capacitors in Series
Since there is only one path, charge is the same in all
capacitors regardless of capacitance
Voltage drop of each capacitor directly add
q q 1 1
V V1 V2
Cq1 C2 C1 C 2
1 1
Series capacitors
CS i Ci
20.12.1. A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery and becomes fully
charged. A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference across the
plates of the capacitor.Then, an uncharged thin metal plate is inserted into the
gap between the parallel plates without touching either plate. What affect, if
any, does the insertion of the plate have on the potential difference across the
plates?
c) The potential difference will decrease to one half its initial value.
a) 30 C
b) 300 C
c) 3000 C
d) 100 C
e) 1000 C
Chapter 20:
Electric
Circuits Section 13:
RC Circuits
RC Circuits
Capacitor charging
q qo 1 e
t RC
time constant
RC
RC Circuits
Capacitor discharging
t RC
q qoe
time constant
RC
20.13.1. In physics lab, Rebecca measured the voltage across an
unknown capacitor in an RC circuit, every ten seconds after a
switch in the circuit that allows the capacitor to discharge is
closed. The capacitor was initially fully charged.Using the
graph, estimate the time constant.
a) 7.5 s
b) 15 s
c) 30 s
d) 45 s
e) 60 s
20.13.2. An RC circuit contains a battery, a switch, a resistor, and a
capacitor – all connected in series. Initially, the switch is open and
the capacitor is uncharged. Which one of the following statements
correctly describes the current in the circuit during the time the
capacitor is charging?
d) The current increases for the first half of the time until the capacitor is
fully discharged, and then decreases during the second half of the time.