Life Science Organ Systems Nervous System

Organ Systems
Coordination & Control

Navigation Table
Organ Systems: Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common Hazards
Activities
Self-Study Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Pre-Test
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Click a link below to take the pre-test for this unit!
Why It Matters
What We Know • Google assessment
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Introduction
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control Introduction
Quick Now! What is the organ of personality?
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test Of course, the answer is your brain. Maybe
you never thought about it that way, but
Introduction what makes you YOU is your brain. Your
Why It Matters body is made up of cells. Cells come
together to make tissues. Tissues come
What We Know together to make organs. Organs come
together to make organ systems. Those
How We Know organ systems come together to make your
Story Time entire body. Now, we want to look at more
Common than your body. Now we want to explore
Hazards your mind! We want to consider how the
brain creates your mind and your
Activities personality.
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Objectives
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters • After completing this lesson, each student should be able to:
What We Know
 Explain the structure and function of the nervous system including
How We Know neurons
Story Time  Understand the direct actions of the brain and spinal cord on controlling:
 Detection of environmental change
Common  Consciousness
Hazards  Learning and memory
Activities  Emotions
 Movement
Self-Study  Understand what is known about common hazards to the nervous
Game system
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Why It Matters
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control Why It Matters
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
The Brain is the Organ of Personality
Control If the brain creates who you are, what
Pre-Test could be more important to you than
your brain? Teenage brains are rapidly
Introduction changing, due in part to surging
Why It Matters hormones, and also because the
"finishing touches" are being added to the
What We Know sculpting of the neural circuits
(interconnections between the nerve
How We Know cells) in your brain. Social environment
Story Time and thoughts will affect that sculpting.
Recent research, based on brain scans,
Common
indicates that the most profound changes
Hazards
during this time occur in the front of the
Activities brain, the part that is crucial for
Self-Study advanced functions such as critical
Game thinking, self-control, and judgment.
Brain scans indicate that the frontal
Post-Test
cerebral cortex (outer layer of the
Glossary cerebrum) does not mature until about
age 25.
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Your Brain has a mind of its own
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters Brain affects mind. Mind affects brain.
What We Know Brain affects behavior and hormone release.
How We Know
Later in this unit, we will discuss more about the makeup
Story Time of the mind.
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ Knowing How the Brain Works Can Help You
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Learn
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters A new movement in education is called
"neuroeducation" or "brain-based
What We Know learning." That is, we can use our
How We Know knowledge of certain ways that the brain
works to make teaching, learning, and
Story Time remembering more effective. This module
Common explains some of those brain functions
Hazards that relate to learning and remembering.
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
The Brain is Programmable
Control
Pre-Test The brain is programmed by your experiences. You
can also program your brain by the choices you
Introduction
make and by training. You can train your brain to
Why It Matters have certain attitudes, beliefs, capabilities. You
What We Know can also abuse your brain by feeding it bad ideas,
unhealthy attitudes, or drugs that affect the mind.
How We Know Unlike eating junk food, feeding junk ideas,
Story Time information, and feelings to your brain can
Common program your brain and behavior permanently.
Hazards Behavior has consequences that can last a
Activities lifetime.
Self-Study What you do tonight might affect your brain
Game for the next 80 years.
Post-Test Be kind to your brain. That is being kind to
yourself.
Glossary
Organ Brain Diseases and Disorders Can Be
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Devastating
Disease of the brain can cripple us, make us behave badly, or even destroy our personality
and sense of self.
Pre-Test
Major nervous system diseases:
Introduction
 Traumatic Brain Injury: concussion ruptures
Why It Matters microtubules inside of neurons and nerve-to-
nerve contacts due to mechanical forces (such as
What We Know sports injuries, car crashes, etc.)
How We Know  Epilepsy: random episodes of convulsions due to
Story Time overactive neurons
Common  Stroke: interruption of blood supply to brain, due

Hazards either to hemorrhage or to blocked arteries that
can damage function associated with the affected
Activities area of the brain (ex: partial paralysis)
Self-Study  Parkinson's disease: a disease of old age
Game causing continuous trembling that progresses to
Post-Test depression and poor ability to move
Image from:
Glossary  Alzheimer's disease: a disease of old age that https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/figures?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0078490
kills nerve cells, starting in the outer parts of
brain (cerebral cortex)
Organ Brain Diseases and Disorders Can Be Devastating
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Cont’d
Some mental disorders include:
Pre-Test  Depression: severe state of sadness that is continuous most of the time
Introduction  Anxiety: distress, fear, worry and related emotional upset
Why It Matters  Schizophrenia: complex disorder with abnormal behaviors and thought disorders like
hallucinations, delusions, lack of emotion, and disorganized thoughts, speech, and
What We Know behavior
How We Know Mental and behavioral diseases and disorders are found in people all countries
Story Time • in all societies
Common • in women and men at all stages of life
Hazards • among the rich and poor
• among people living in urban and rural areas
Activities
Self-Study Analyses done by World Health Organization show that about 10% of people in the world
Game suffer from a neuropsychiatric condition. This calculates to be about 450 million people! These
neuropsychiatric conditions included unipolar depressive disorders, bipolar affective disorder,
Post-Test
schizophrenia, epilepsy, alcohol and selected drug use disorders, Alzheimer's and
Glossary other dementias, post-traumatic stress, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder,
and primary insomnia.
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
What We Know
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control What We Know
Organ
Systems: What Makes Up the Nervous System?
Coordination & The main purpose of the nervous system is to facilitate
Control
communication between the different parts of the body.
Pre-Test That’s a big job! The cells that do this job are called
neurons.
Introduction
The nervous system is broken into two main segments:
Why It Matters the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
What We Know nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made up of the
brain and spinal cord and are the main coordinators and
How We Know
processors of nervous activity. They decide what your
Story Time body does and when it does it. The PNS is the messenger
Common to and from the CNS. It is composed of all of our sensory
Hazards neurons that detect touch, taste, vision, smell, and
sound, which report to the CNS, as well as all the
Activities neurons that carry out the instructions from the brain
Self-Study and spinal cord to our muscles, organs, and glands.
Game Author: OpenStax
Source: https://cnx.org/contents/FPtK1zmh@8.25:fEI3C8Ot@10/Preface
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: What Makes Up the Nervous System?
Coordination &
Control Cont’d
Below is a flowchart diagramming the components of the nervous system.
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: What are Neurons?
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Diagram of a nerve cell, called a neuron
Hazards Source: Texas Gateway
Activities Nerve cells are called "neurons." They make up both the central nervous
Self-Study system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). They have
Game various shapes that are different from a “typical” animal cell. Their cell
membranes form many small branches. Those branches around the cell body
Post-Test are called dendrites and receive information from other neurons. There are
Glossary also branches at the ends of long extensions of the cell, called "axons" which
can send information to other neurons. The message carried by a neuron is
called an impulse.
Organ
Systems: Different Types of Neurons
Coordination & Not all neurons do the same job. There are three types of neurons in your
Control body. Sensory neurons receive and send impulses to the brain or spinal
cord. Interneurons relay these impulses to motor neurons. Motor neurons
Pre-Test
then conduct impulses from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands
Introduction throughout the body.
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study Different types of neurons occur in the body. In this diagram, the purple spot is the nucleus
Game of the cell. The round part of the cell containing the nucleus is the cell body, which also
contains most of the organelles. Sometimes it is hard to tell which extension is the axon and
which extensions are just branches on the cell body. Source: Texas Gateway
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: Different Types of Neurons Cont’d
Coordination & Nerve cells can also have an insulating material, called
Control myelin, that surrounds certain axons. Myelin keeps the
electrical impulses that move through the neuron
Pre-Test
contained (we will talk about those electrical impulses
Introduction next) and allows those impulses to move quickly down
the cell.
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game Image from:
https://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/webversions/Brain/guide/info-bra
in.html
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: What Do Neurons Do?
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Neurons communicate with other cells.
Introduction Neurons:
Why It Matters
• Generate electricity
What We Know • Secrete chemicals
How We Know These two actions are what allow neurons to
communicate with each other and with other
Story Time tissues. The place where two neurons meet,
Common where there is a tiny gap, is called a synapse.
Hazards When one neuron has been excited, it can carry
an electrical nerve impulse (message) down
Activities its axon and release chemicals called
Self-Study neurotransmitters into the synapse that can
Game excite or inhibit the next neuron.
A synapse is where two neurons meet.
Post-Test From:
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2006/Cow
Glossary lishaw/synthesis.htm
Organ
Systems: Generating Electricity
Coordination & Neurons are like batteries. The battery is
Control created because electrically charged
atoms, especially sodium and potassium,
Pre-Test
have different concentrations inside and
Introduction outside of the neuron. When the neuron
battery is discharged or "shorted," the
Why It Matters
charged atoms move across the
What We Know membrane, creating an electrical current
called a nerve impulse (also called an
How We Know action potential). The current of each
Story Time impulse spreads down the extensions of
a neuron, like a burning fuse. The
Common neuronal battery can be discharged by
Hazards electrical stimulation, similar to a
Activities defibrillator can start a heartbeat, or
chemical stimulation, like norepinephrine
Self-Study that is so important in your fight-or-flight
Game response.
Post-Test A detailed diagram of a synapse showing the secretion of
neurotransmitter molecules and the passage of electrical
nerve impulses.
Glossary By user:Looie496 created file, US National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Aging created original -
http://www.nia.nih.gov/alzheimers/publication/alzheimers-disease-unraveling-mystery/preface, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8882110
Organ
Systems: Generating Electricity Cont’d
Coordination & Ions (charged atoms) of sodium (Na) and potassium (K), not electrons, are the carriers of
Control electrical current in nerve tissue. When a neuron is stimulated, molecular pores in its cell
membrane open. The pores are created by proteins that have a donut-like hole that can
Pre-Test
open for sodium and potassium ions. Sodium ions are the first to move. They move in
Introduction because there is an electrical pulling force (inside is negative and sodium ions are positive)
and an osmotic force (sodium is more concentrated on the outside). But as sodium rushes in,
Why It Matters
the inside becomes positive, and that forces out positively charged potassium. In the resting
What We Know state, potassium is concentrated on the inside of cells.
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
For an excellent simulation of this, see A nerve impulse moves in one direction, from axon to
Glossary PHET Interactive Simulations. dendrite.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential#/media/Fi
le:Action_Potential.gif
Organ
Systems: Secreting Chemicals
Coordination & When the electrical impulses reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of
Control neurotransmitter chemicals. These chemicals then come in contact with receptor molecules
on the membranes of target cells (see "Proteins " and "Membranes" in the "Cells are Us"
Pre-Test
Module).
Introduction Target cells of neurons are glands, muscles, or other neurons. The message differs with the
Why It Matters chemical and the target, but basically it is to promote activity in the target cell or suppress
it. This is done in steps:
What We Know
 Neurotransmitter binds with a
How We Know
protein on the target cell
Story Time membrane
 Binding activates a protein on
Common
Hazards the inside face of the membrane
that serves to trigger actions on
Activities other cell chemicals.
Self-Study  One of the activated chemicals
Game may even migrate into the
Post-Test nucleus to change the
expression of genes.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: What Do the Brain and Spinal Cord Do?
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Remember, the nervous system is
Why It Matters
broken into two sections, called the
What We Know central nervous system (CNS), and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The
How We Know
brain and the spinal cord make up the
Story Time CNS. The brain is located within the
skull. The spinal cord extends from the
Common brain, down the center of the body
Hazards
through the vertebrae (bones of the
Activities spine).
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test In this diagram, you can see the CNS (brain and spinal cord) and
the PNS (peripheral nerves shown in blue).
Glossary Diagram from: https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GlossaryDescription/65/0

Organ
Systems: Brain Basics
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters The brain coordinates your body’s activities. You
will learn much more about what the brain does in
What We Know
the next section, but for now we are going to look
How We Know at the basics.
Story Time The brain is made up of around 86 billion neurons!
The brain is divided into three major sections- the
Common cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem.
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: Brain Basics Cont’d
Coordination & The cerebrum is where the higher functions like
Control thinking takes place. It is the largest part of the brain.
It is where the impulses from the senses (vision,
Pre-Test
hearing, taste, touch, and smell) are interpreted,
Introduction where your memory is stored, and where the fine
control of the movements of your body are directed. It
Why It Matters
also performs functions like reasoning, emotions, and
What We Know learning. The outer layer or covering of the cerebrum
is called the “cerebral cortex.” Sometimes the cerebral
How We Know cortex is referred to as the “cortex” in this unit. Later
Story Time in this unit, we will go into more depth about the
functions of the cerebral cortex.
Common
Hazards The cerebellum functions to coordinate muscle
movements, maintain posture, and maintain balance.
Activities
The brain stem acts to connect the cerebrum and
Self-Study cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs functions
Game such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature
Post-Test regulation and other involuntary actions.
Glossary For an excellent tour of the brain, click here. This is from
the Alzheimer’s Association. It also explains how
Alzheimer’s disease affects the brain.
Organ
Systems: What Do Brains Look Like?
Coordination & They differ a lot, depending on the species.
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test Brains of many different species, shown to scale of
Glossary relative size. See more pictures of brains from many
species by clicking here and here.
Organ
Systems: What the Spinal Cord Does
Coordination & The spinal cord is a long, thin structure made of neurons. It runs from the brain stem, down
Control the body, and through the vertebrae. The primary function of the spinal cord is to carry
Pre-Test impulses (messages) from all parts of the body to the brain and from the brain to all parts of
your body. In other words, it is like an impulse super highway!
Introduction
If you cut the spinal cord of any higher animal in cross section, it looks like this. There is a
Why It Matters central "H" zone containing millions of neurons surrounded by white substance, which is
What We Know actually many nerve fibers cut in cross section. Some fiber bundles go toward the brain,
while others are bringing information to the spinal cord from the brain
How We Know
Two-way Cabling
Story Time Like electrical wiring in your car or your house, neurons in the
Common spinal cord communicate with the brain by insulated cables.
Hazards The axons that descend from the brain or ascend to the brain
are covered with an insulating coat of membrane. The
Activities membrane coating comes from nearby cells ("glial cells") that
wrap their membranes around and around the axons and
Self-Study
Game create electrical insulation.
Knowing this, can you see why damage to the spinal cord
Post-Test
causes paralysis? Can you see why that paralysis might be
Glossary permanent?
Organ
Systems: What Peripheral Nerves Do
Coordination &
Control
The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, takes
Pre-Test in stimuli from the body and relays them to
Introduction the spinal cord where they can be transferred
to the brain. It is like a messenger system that
Why It Matters takes in information and then carries
What We Know instructions for what to do next! It is made up
of 12 pairs of nerves that come from your
How We Know brain (the cranial nerves) and 31 pairs of
Story Time nerves from your spinal cord called spinal
nerves. Many of these nerves include both
Common sensory and motor neurons. The peripheral
Hazards nervous system also includes ganglia, which
are oval shaped structure that contain the cell
Activities
bodies of various nerve cells. The peripheral
Self-Study nervous system is divided into the somatic and
Game autonomic systems. The somatic system
controls voluntary actions. The autonomic
Post-Test system controls involuntary actions. Image credit,
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ap-
Glossary biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/overview-
of-neuron-structure-and-function, modified from “Nervous
system diagram,” by Medium69 (CC BY-SA 4.0).
Organ
Systems: Putting it all Together
Coordination &
Control The CNS and PNS work together to take in
Pre-Test information from around or inside of you (stimuli),
carry that information to the brain for processing,
Introduction and then send out messages directing the body how
Why It Matters you react or respond to those messages. A nerve
impulse pathway is a specific pathway -from sensory
What We Know neuron to interneuron to motor neuron- that many
How We Know impulses follow to bring about a response to a
stimulus. Think of it like a relay race, but instead of
Story Time carrying a baton, the nerves are carrying messages.
First, the sensory neurons take in a stimulus from
Common
the environment or from within the body. The
Hazards
sensory neuron carries the message to an
Activities interneuron in the brain. Then, the brain processes
the information and decides what response is
Self-Study needed. Finally, the motor neuron conducts the
Game message from the brain to muscles or glands where
Post-Test a response or action can take place.
Image from:
Glossary https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-functions-of-afferent-and-efferent-n
eurons
Organ
Systems: Putting it all Together Cont’d
Coordination & Pain-relieving medicines can act at different places in this pathway.
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Pain information is carried into the lateral (side) part of the spinal
Post-Test
cord and on to the brain. Common pain-killing drugs act at different
Glossary levels of the pathway.
Organ
Coordination & A Reflex Action
Control
Some actions need to happen so quickly that their messages do not go all the way to the
Pre-Test brain for processing. These types of actions are called “reflexes.”
Introduction If you touch something extremely hot, pain
Why It Matters information comes into the spinal cord by
way of the sensory neurons and excites
What We Know peripheral motor neurons which then
How We Know activate flexor muscles that flex the elbow
and wrist of the arm on the same side as
Story Time the stimulus. The brain is not a part of this
Common reaction. At the same time, the painful
Hazards stimulus excites an inhibitory neuron that
prevents contraction of the muscles that
Activities
extend the arm. Why is this necessary?
Self-Study What would happen if both flexor (the Image: Wikipedia Commons
Game muscles that bend the arm) and extensor
Post-Test (the muscles that extend the arm) muscles
of the same arm contracted at the same
Glossary time?
Organ
Coordination &
Control In summary, in a reflex, the PNS brings
sensory information into the CNS which takes
Pre-Test
that information and tells the motor neurons in
Introduction the PNS what to do. Note again that all of this
Why It Matters occurs locally. There is no need for the brain.
Of course, the painful information is sent to
What We Know the brain by way of some of the other neurons
How We Know that run from the spinal cord to the brain. You
actually move the hand away from the heat
Story Time
before you feel the pain of the burn! That’s
Common fast!
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Now, let’s go much deeper into the functions of the brain!
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: More Detailed Structure
Coordination & For this next section, we need to
Control know a little more about the
structure of the brain. As we
Pre-Test
showed before, there are three
Introduction basic parts of the brain: the
cerebrum, cerebellum, and
Why It Matters
brainstem. The outer layer of the
What We Know cerebrum is called the cerebral
cortex. The cerebrum is further
How We Know divided into two sides or
Story Time “hemispheres,” each with four
sections or “lobes” that control
Common different body functions. Each lobe
Hazards may also be divided into areas that
Activities serve very specific functions. It’s
important to know that each lobe
Self-Study of the brain does not function
Game alone. There are very complex
Post-Test relationships between the lobes of Image from “Brain Anatomy and Functions” by the National Cancer Institute at the NIH:
the brain and between the two https://www.cancer.gov/rare-brain-spine-tumor/tumors/anatomy
Glossary sides or hemispheres of the brain.
Organ
Systems: More Detailed Structure Cont’d
Coordination & There are also some deep brain structures that will be discussed in this portion of this
Control lesson. These structures include the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pons.
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Image from NIH U.S. National Library of Medicine:
Post-Test https://toxtutor.nlm.nih.gov/14-004.html (Image Source: Adapted from iStock Photos, ©)
Glossary What is the “mind?” Some people equate it with some kind of immaterial soul. But these can
be two different things. Whatever the mind is, it is generated by the brain. Here is why we
say that:
Organ
Systems: The Mind is Nerve Impulses
Coordination & Man-made computers represent and process
Control information about the world with 1s and 0s. Brains
represent and process information about their
Pre-Test
world with nerve impulses, in terms of the
Introduction discharge rate (how often), distribution of intervals
among impulses (how far apart), and the degree of
Why It Matters
synchrony with impulse discharges in other
What We Know neurons and circuits.
How We Know As with computers, if you turn off the electric
current, the computer becomes non-functional. In
Story Time
humans, the point has been made experimentally:
Common for example, one can inject an anesthetic into a
Hazards carotid artery (blood vessel that supplies the brain)
Activities and disrupt all impulse traffic—and the
corresponding thoughts—in the area of the cerebral
Self-Study cortex (the outer layer of the cerebrum) supplied
Game by that artery.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Mind is Nerve Impulses Cont’d
Coordination & Recording nerve impulses by way of electroencephalogram (EEG) reveals that there are two
Control proofs that the mind is constructed from nerve impulse patterns:
Pre-Test 1. Changing electrical activity changes the associated thought. Various studies
show that applying low-level electrical stimulation to regions of cortex changes the
Introduction
underlying impulse discharge and changes the thought. One example: during brain
Why It Matters surgery, when the patient is awake, localized stimulation evokes emotions, music,
What We Know silent speech, and a variety of effects depending on the area stimulated.
How We Know 2. Changing the thought changes the electrical activity. Neurons that are active
during a given thought change or cease impulse discharge as the thought changes.
Story Time EEG readings change in distinct ways that correlate with shifts in mental states along
its continuum of alert wakefulness, drowsiness, sleep, dream sleep, anesthesia, and
Common
Hazards coma.
There is latent (hidden or concealed) thought however. In the above example, those
Activities
anesthetized circuits in the cortex still have a capacity for thoughts stored as memories in
Self-Study their synapses and connection pathways. In other words, they have not lost their capacity
Game for thinking. However, thought itself is not expressed because the anesthetic disrupted
impulse discharge. The computer analogy applies here also. Information in a computer
Post-Test resides in stored hard-disk memory and can get expressed when you turn on the computer.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Makes Us Aware
Coordination & What would it be like if you "saw" all the radio signals in the
Control world? There is short-wave radio, AM, and FM. There is
communication among pilots and airports, military
Pre-Test
communications, satellite uplinks and downlinks. If we could
Introduction see all that, we would go crazy. Fortunately, our brains are
wired to see only what we have to see for effective
Why It Matters
operation in this world. We don't need to see radio signals,
What We Know but we do need to see objects that we would otherwise walk
into.
How We Know
Similar things could be said about sound. The point is that
Story Time we are aware of only part of what is "out there" in the
Common world.
Hazards We humans have detector cells for:
Activities  Light waves (eyes)
Self-Study  Sound waves (ears)
Game  Chemicals that we smell (sensors in the nose)
 Chemicals that we taste (tongue sensors)
Post-Test  Physical forces (touch, pressure, cold, heat) (skin
Glossary sensors)
 Muscle tone and limb position (sensors in muscles)
Organ
Systems: The Brain Makes Us Aware Cont’d
Coordination & Two things to remember about these sensations:
Control
1. They tend to be mapped in our brains. That is mapped in terms of location outside of
Pre-Test our body or location inside our body, depending on where the sensation is coming
Introduction from.
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Image from The Dana Foundation: https://www.dana.org/article/neuroanatomy-the-basics/
Organ
Systems: The Brain Makes Us Aware Cont’d
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
The visual pathway with the course of information flow from the
Introduction right (green) and left (blue) areas of the two eye's visual fields.
Note that half of the fibers cross over to the other side.
Why It Matters
The lateral geniculate body is a relay station in the brainstem.
What We Know Some processing of visual information occurs at this level, but
How We Know conscious evaluation of what you see occurs in the visual cortex.
Story Time Mapping can be very specific. For example, neurons in the visual
cortex (see above) respond to a line on a TV screen, but the
Common degree of response depends on the orientation of the line
Hazards (vertical, horizontal, angular) and the line's location in the field of
Activities view.
2. We can be consciously aware of some of these stimuli.
Self-Study
That is, we not only know this information, we are aware
Game
Image from:
that we are aware of it.
Post-Test https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s2/chap
ter15.html
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Makes Us Conscious
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Where Does Consciousness Come From?
Introduction
It comes from the interaction between:
Why It Matters
 The cerebral cortex (outer portion of the cerebrum)
What We Know  A cluster of neurons in the core of the brainstem
How We Know (reticular formation)
Lower animals do not have nearly as many cells in their
Story Time
cortex as we do. Therefore, they cannot operate at the
Common same high level of consciousness as we do. In both lower
Hazards and higher animals, the brainstem core is crucial. Damage in
this area can cause permanent coma. But the cortex is also
Activities crucial. Without it, we cannot see, hear, or think
Self-Study consciously, even if there is nothing wrong with the
Game brainstem arousal system.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Makes Us Conscious Cont’d
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters What Triggers Consciousness?
Strong or meaningful stimuli wake
What We Know us up (like a dog barking will wake
How We Know up a sleeping cat). By whatever
route stimuli arrive, some of the
Story Time input goes to the brainstem reticular
Common formation while the rest goes to the
Hazards cortex. It is as if this allows the
brainstem to say "wake up brain,
Activities information is coming in you need to
Self-Study attend to!”
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Coordination &
Control
Attention Determines the
Pre-Test Registration of Stimuli
Introduction You are aware of what you attend to and not
aware of what is not attended. For a fun
Why It Matters activity, see this video of a basketball game.
What We Know Paying attention affects how well a stimulus
How We Know is registered (scientists call this encoding).
Neurons in the visual cortex are tuned to
Story Time
respond to stimuli at specific angles of
Common orientation. Recording the number of a
Hazards neuron's impulses from a stimulus at various
angles produces what is called a "tuning
Activities curve." This tuning curve shows that the
Self-Study strength of encoding for a visual stimulus is
Game greatly influenced by paying attention.
Post-Test Moral of the story: if you want to learn and

remember, pay attention!
Glossary
Organ
Coordination & Stimuli That Trigger Emotions Grab Your Attention
Control
Rather than consciously focus our attention, our attention usually just drifts until
Pre-Test something grabs it. Stimuli that are strong, especially meaningful, or have emotional
associations are most affective at grabbing our attention. When we let that happen, our
Introduction
environment controls our behavior rather than our conscious mind and will. Exerting will
Why It Matters is called “executive function,” and this function has to be learned. Very young children
have little executive function ability.
What We Know
How We Know Eye movement tracking when two visual scenes are presented,
one which has emotional associations (red bordered box) and
Story Time one which does not (black bordered box). Without conscious
intervention, eyes automatically move (colored part of track)
Common from the center visual fixation point (red spot) to the emotional
Hazards stimulus and spend most of the time scanning that stimulus.
Switching left-right positions of the stimuli does not changes
Activities this basic response.
Self-Study Ability to focus and concentrate is learned. If we

Game are continually distracted and shifting attention
from one thing to another, we are training our
Post-Test brains to be scatterbrained. But if we willfully
Glossary practice concentrating, we create a HABIT of
attentiveness.
Organ
Coordination & Training Attentiveness
Control
Would you like to be able to pay better attention to things? You can train yourself to, and
Pre-Test here’s how.
Introduction 1. Recognize just how important attentiveness is, since your reality is constructed
from what you attend to.
Why It Matters
2. Live in the now. The expert on this philosophy, Eckhart Tolle, says, “The clock’s
What We Know hands move, but it is always now.” Grab the present intensely. You cannot know the
How We Know future and you cannot re-do the past.
3. Think in terms of targets for attentiveness, and take mental aim at them.
Story Time
Targets should be interesting or have a clear value. If these attributes are not
Common apparent, you must consciously enable them. Choose challenging targets of
Hazards attention, ones that push you to the edge of your competence.
Activities 4. Make tough choices about what to attend to. Attending orders but limits your
experience. Attend to those things that best serve your own best interests.
Self-Study
5. Develop an eye for detail. See the forest, but also see the trees (and the leaves,
Game
bark, insects, birds, squirrels, and everything else there). Notice the small pleasures
Post-Test of life. It teaches you how to focus and makes you happier.
Glossary 6. Shut out distractions. Stay on target. In memory tournaments, contestants wear
ear plugs or wear glasses with side blinders. Some contestants face a blank wall.
Organ
Coordination &
Control
7. Set goals and keep track of them and how you are getting them achieved.
Pre-Test 8. Change the pace of your attention. Stay on task, but don’t let it become a drill.
Introduction Enliven dull work by thinking of it in novel ways. Make targets of attention more
engaging by creating competition or making them into some sort of game.
Why It Matters
9. Don’t multitask. This is the arch enemy of attentiveness and profoundly interferes
What We Know with the ability to learn and especially to remember. Multitasking creates a
superficial way of thinking that also imperils the ability to think deeply in mentally
How We Know
demanding situations. It trains you to be distractible.
Story Time 10.Be more self-aware of what you are doing, why, and how.
Common 11.Develop a passion for what you experience, as that will rivet your attention.
Hazards Use your emotions to focus attention. Both negative and positive emotions work. The
kiss of death for learning is to be bored and detached from what you are trying to
Activities
learn. Become emotionally invested in what you are trying to learn and remember.
Self-Study Emotions are well known to influence memory, and one of the main reasons is that
Game emotions influence how you pay attention to events or information in the first place.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Coordination &
Control
12.Practice attentiveness. Practice concentrating on
Pre-Test routine tasks. Psychologist Ellen Langer suggests
Introduction staring at your finger. Attentiveness is cultivated from
the more you notice: the dirt, distribution of hair,
Why It Matters pattern of skin folds, shape of the knuckles, and
What We Know features of the nail (shape, color of quick, ridges,
etc.). Do similar exercises with any object you
How We Know encounter. Learn how to meditate. See how long you
Story Time can sustain focus on your breathing and keep out all
intruding thoughts and the silent chatter you usually
Common hear in the mind's ear. Notice all things associated
Hazards with the breathing, but nothing else. Hear the sound
of the moving air with each breath. Breathe slowly:
Activities
six counts in, eight counts out. Notice the rhythm and
Self-Study the gradual slowing. Feel your clothes shifting position
Game and the tension flowing out of your muscles, first in
the jaw, then back and legs. Not only does meditation
Post-Test teach your brain how to concentrate, it also lowers
Glossary anxiety and contributes to peace of mind.
Organ
Systems: The Brain Puts Us to Sleep
Coordination & We say we "fall" asleep. But actually, the brain puts us to sleep if we are tired, bored, and
Control unstimulated. The brain actually has circuits ("sleep centers") that, when stimulated under
relaxed conditions, put us to sleep.
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Areas of the brain (in red), when active in an otherwise
Self-Study relaxed brain state, put us to sleep.
Game
These areas may coordinate as a "sleep system," but that
Post-Test has not been confirmed experimentally.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Puts Us to Sleep Cont’d
Coordination & Sleep as a Mixture of States
Control
Early night's sleep is a deep sleep, where you "fall into a deep pit." Off and on during
Pre-Test the night, you have dreams (most of which you do not remember). Toward early
Introduction morning, dreaming increases, and you typically wake up in a dream.
Why It Matters Sleep as a Mixture of

States
What We Know
 Deep sleep (stage IV) occurs
How We Know soon after going to sleep
Story Time and does not recur later in
the night.
Common  REM is delayed, occurs on
Hazards
and off, and increases in
Activities duration as the night
progresses.
Self-Study
Game  REM terminates in early
morning just before waking.
Post-Test Left: Change in sleep states during a typical night's sleep. Yellow: wakefulness; Green:
dream sleep (called REM because rapid eye movements occur). Other shades: different
Glossary stages of regular sleep, as indicated by associated brain-wave (EEG) changes on the right.
Right: Brain-wave changes (EEG) during different stages of sleep. Note that pattern during
REM is similar to that during wakefulness, even though REM occurs when one is asleep.
Organ
Systems: The Brain Puts Us to Sleep Cont’d
Coordination & Why Do We Sleep?
Control
Nobody knows. Evidence that it is needed to help the brain recuperate from
Pre-Test long periods of wakefulness:
Introduction 1. True sleep only occurs in higher animals that have a relatively large
brain that performs more than primitive basic functions.
Why It Matters
2. Such a brain has a high metabolic rate, suggesting that periods of rest
What We Know and recovery might be needed. Glucose consumption does decrease in
How We Know the brain during regular sleep (but not REM).
Story Time 3. Ion distributions and neurotransmitter systems may have to be

regenerated after a period of wakefulness.
Common
Evidence against the "rest idea" is that:
Hazards
1. Most neurons do not fire less during sleep; some even fire more
Activities vigorously.
Self-Study 2. The most obvious change in sleep is a shift toward more slow-
Game frequency oscillation and synchrony among cortical areas.
Post-Test 3. The brain is "working" in all stages of sleep. It consolidates memories
of the day's events.
Glossary
Organ
Coordination &
Control Why Do We Dream?
Nobody knows. Evidence that it is needed to help wake us up:
Pre-Test
1. A normal human nightly sleep is interrupted by episodes of
Introduction brain activation (REM) in which brain activity resembles that
Why It Matters seen in wakefulness.
What We Know 2. Dreams occur in which events seem to be consciously
perceived and in which the dreamer is an agent in the dream.
How We Know
3. SWS and REM have apparently co-evolved, being most
Story Time conspicuous in mammals.
Common 4. Most people awaken after a normal night’s sleep in the
Hazards morning at some point in a REM episode, often in the midst of
a dream.
Activities
5. REM most likely arises from some of the same ascending
Self-Study brainstem arousal influences that create and sustain
Game wakefulness.
Post-Test 6. REM shares many of the properties of wakefulness and thus
may be a transitional state between sleep and wakefulness.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Lets Us Learn and Remember
Coordination &
Control How We Learn
Learning involves the following:
Pre-Test
 Attending to the new information
Introduction  Registering (encoding)
Why It Matters  Associating the new with prior knowledge
 Forming a temporary (working) memory
What We Know
 Consolidating temporary memory into more lasting form
How We Know How the Brain Represents Information
Story Time 1. Encodes (made into a form that can be stored within the brain) as a pattern of
Common nerve impulses, flowing in certain paths (circuits).
Hazards 2. As long as the pattern is present, the represented information is available to be
used.
Activities
3. The longer the pattern is sustained, without disruption, the better the chance for
Self-Study remembering.
Game
4. Disrupting the pattern can be caused by a shift in attention, new information, or
Post-Test new actions and behavior.
Glossary 5. Interference that occurs too soon will prevent consolidation into lasting memory.
THIS IS THE PROBLEM WITH MULTI-TASKING!
Organ
Coordination &
Control Cont’d
Memory “Consolidation”
Memories are stored widely in the brain. A major problem for school
Pre-Test
children is in getting the memories stored so that school lessons are
Introduction not forgotten. Remember what you were supposed to have learned
yesterday? One part of the brain, the medial temporal lobe and
Why It Matters
nearby structures, is responsible for converting temporary memories
What We Know into more permanent form.
How We Know Ventral (bottom) view of the adult human
brain with the temporal lobe outlined in
Story Time
white.
Common The temporal lobe connects by way of the
Hazards parahippocampal gyrus (Black asterisk)
Activities with the hippocampus, which is folded
underneath the temporal lobe.
Self-Study
Game People who have strokes or another damage to these medial
temporal lobe structures have significant problems in learning new
Post-Test things. Their memory for old knowledge is not affected, nor is their
ability to learn certain kinds of conditioning and movement or skills
Glossary
involving movement.
Organ
Coordination & The brain takes several days to weeks to make a new
Control Cont’d
memory last. The first few minutes after learning are
needed to encode new information firmly and start the
Pre-Test
consolidation process. Refreshing the memory several times
Introduction over the next few days sustains and reinforces the memory
formation process.
Why It Matters
The process continues subconsciously, even during sleep.
What We Know Insufficient sleep interferes with memory consolidation.
How We Know This conversion of short-term memory into more lasting
Story Time form has certain requirements:
Common  The brain needs to pay attention so that the information
Hazards actually registers (encodes).
 Motivation to remember promotes attentiveness and
Activities reinforces the encoding.
Self-Study  Time must elapse (seconds to minutes for encoding; hours
Game to days for consolidation).
Post-Test Distractions and conflicting stimuli should be kept to a

minimum because they will otherwise interfere with the
Glossary conversion process.
Does this provide any ideas for how to be a better student? See Activity #4 for a memory experiment.
Organ
Systems: The Brain Affects School Work
Coordination & School lessons not only teach you things; they also teach your brain
Control how to learn. The more you learn, the more your brain is learning
how to learn. In other words, the more you know, the more
Pre-Test
you CAN know.
Introduction Language is Important for Our Thinking
Why It Matters We think most clearly and precisely with language.
What We Know We remember best with pictures.
How We Know Age and Learning A Second Language

Story Time Foreigners who come here as young children can learn English as
well as U.S.-born children. But children who come here in the 8th
Common grade or higher have a much more difficult time.
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Affects School Work Cont’d
Coordination & Reading
Control
Learn to read early. The first seven or eight years are the most
Pre-Test sensitive time for learning how to read. The longer you wait to
develop reading skills, the harder it becomes.
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Coordination & Brains of Young People are in a Critical Stage of Development
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters The parts that develop first
represent basic senses and
What We Know movement controls. The parts
How We Know that develop later, in teenagers,
are the "thinking" and memorizing
Story Time parts of the cortex. Note that the
frontal lobes and hippocampal
Common
Hazards areas are still developing in
adolescents. Thoughts and
Activities experiences at this age will have
lasting effects on brain "wiring"
Self-Study and capability.
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Coordination & Teenagers Do Not Read Much. They Do Read More as They Get Older.
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Yet, reading is the most efficient way to
Self-Study
experience and learn large amounts of new
Game
information (assuming you know how to read
Post-Test well). Teenagers, on average, don't read much
at all, even in school.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Controls Emotions
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test Emotions are Part of What Makes Humans
Introduction Different
Why It Matters Laughter is one clear difference from animals

("laughing" hyenas are not really laughing). For
What We Know more on the brain's role in laughing, click here.
How We Know Likewise, emotion-based crying seems unique to
Story Time humans. All animals produce tears in response to
eye irritants.
Common
Hazards
Activities Feel excited? ... happy? ... sad? ... depressed? ...
mad? These and other feelings are called emotions,
Self-Study and they are controlled by the brain. They arise
Game from outside stimulation and "inside" thoughts that
Post-Test may be influenced by memories.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Controls Emotions Cont’d
Coordination & Emotions arise as reactions to stimuli. These
Control stimuli can either be things we perceive from
the outside world or our own thoughts. They
Pre-Test can trigger both physiological (bodily function)
changes as well as mental recognition of
Introduction emotion. There are several different theories
on exactly how we experience emotions. The
Why It Matters
diagram below illustrates some of these
What We Know theories. The way in which these theories differ
is the order in which emotional and
How We Know physiological reactions occur. The Common
Sense theory, for example, states that our
Story Time emotional reaction to a stimulus causes our
Common physiological reaction, so if you see a snake,
you first experience the emotion of fear and
Hazards then that fear triggers the bodily changes that
Activities come with fear (heart pounding, sweating,
etc.). Another theory, called the Cannon-Bard
Self-Study Theory, says that emotion and physiological
Game changes occur at the same time after the
perception of a stimulus, so after seeing a
Post-Test snake you feel fear and experience your heart
racing at the same time. The different theories
Glossary on how emotions arise are illustrated in the
diagram.
Organ
Coordination &
Control Emotions are processed by a group of brain areas known as
the limbic system. Some structures are shown in the
Pre-Test diagram. The limbic system is a highly integrated set of
Introduction brain areas that process emotions. What you experience or
think about is processed in this system to generate
Why It Matters emotions.
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary The Limbic System
Organ
Coordination & When emotionally relevant stimuli evoke activity in the amygdala, for
Control example, neurons there send signals to forebrain areas that in turn
trigger avoidance behavior or to the brainstem that trigger fear and
Pre-Test
freezing behavior. In both cases, fear and anxiety are part of the
Introduction response. This is an example of how emotions can shape behavior
and motivation. If you are scared of something, you are less likely to
Why It Matters
act in a way that would put you in contact with what you’re scared
What We Know of. For example, if you are afraid of speaking in class, you might
avoid raising your hand to answer a question. If this succeeds and
How We Know you successfully avoid what you’re afraid of, this will reinforce the
Story Time behavior (make a behavior more likely to be repeated). We will talk
more about how this sort of motivation and reinforcement can
Common influence learning in the next section.
Hazards
This processing can be over-ridden by "executive functions" of the
Activities
cerebral cortex, especially the part under the forehead ("frontal
Self-Study cortex").
Game Conscious meditation, for example, can convert anxiety or fear to
Post-Test calmness.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Controls Motivation
Coordination & The brain has systems that cause us
Control
to seek pleasure and to avoid pain or unpleasantness
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Pleasure-seeking system Pain/displeasure avoidance area
Activities Reference: W.R. Klemm Reference: W.R. Klemm
Self-Study
Game As seen in a midline slice of human brain, areas outlined in white contain the indicated
system (usually extends out laterally from the midline).
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Controls Motivation Cont’d
Coordination & Illustrating the Pleasure-seeking System
Control
Pre-Test
Image from:
Introduction http://acces.ens-lyon.fr/acces/themati
ques/neurosciences/actualisation-des-
connaissances/circuit-de-la-recompen
Why It Matters se/contenus-et-figures-activites-pedag
ogiques/images-relatives-a-lactivite-p
edagogique/Experience%20Olds%20
What We Know Milner.JPG/image_view_fullscreen
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
LEFT- reward/pleasure pathway in brain. Stimulation along the darkened area
Activities
of diagram induces pleasure.
Self-Study RIGHT – Small wires were implanted into the brain of the rat that deliver a
Game small electric current stimulation. The stimulation of this pathway releases
Post-Test dopamine into many areas of the brain. Rats will work feverishly to press the
lever to self-administer an electric stimulation to their brain reward pathway.
Glossary This reward system has been confirmed to exist in humans and operate in a
similar way.
Organ
Systems: The Brain Controls Motivation Cont’d
Coordination &
Control We tend to repeat thoughts and actions that seem beneficial
(reinforcement) and avoid those that do not (punishment).
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: Behavior Is Largely Learned
Coordination & Classical Conditioning
Control
Classical conditioning uses a natural biological response to one stimulus, like salivating
Pre-Test when you smell food, to associate behavior with a stimulus that normally wouldn’t elicit
that response (like a noise). Pavlov’s experiment is the original example of classical
Introduction conditioning and is illustrated below.
Why It Matters Conditioned learning: the learning depends on
What We Know repeating conditions in which events are closely
associated in time and meaning. In Pavlov’s original
How We Know experiments the following was seen: 1) The dog
Story Time naturally salivates when presented with food (no
learning required – called “unconditioned stimulus”).
Common 2) Sound from tuning fork is heard by the dog but
Hazards has no meaning related to food (“neutral stimulus”).
Activities 3) When the sound is given immediately before food
repeatedly, the dog learns to associate the two. 4)
Self-Study Upon hearing the sound, the dog salivates in
Game anticipation of food, even though none is present.
Both the sound (stimulus) and response are now
Post-Test
conditioned.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: Behavior Is Largely Learned Cont’d
Coordination &
Control
Another Kind of Conditioning: Operant Conditioning
Pre-Test
Another kind of learning is called "operant conditioning." This is how
Introduction animal trainers teach circus animals and show animals to do tricks.
Why It Matters They "shape" a new behavior for an animal in a series of small steps,
giving a reward when the animal accidentally performs the desired
What We Know behavior. At each step, the animal learns an association between the
How We Know behavior and the reward. When the animal reliably masters a step,
the next step is added, and the process is repeated.
Story Time
There are two main aspects to operant
Common conditioning: reinforcement and punishment.
Hazards
 Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a
Activities behavior being repeated.
Self-Study  Punishment decreases the likelihood of a
Game behavior being repeated.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test Both reinforcement and punishment can be
“positive,” where something is added to increase or
Introduction decrease the likelihood of a behavior or “negative”
Why It Matters where something is taken away to modify
behavior. An example of positive reinforcement
What We Know would be getting ice cream after getting a good
How We Know grade on your exam, whereas positive punishment
would be being assigned more chores for failing
Story Time your exam. In both cases, something is being
added but one makes you want to keep getting
Common
good grades and the other makes you want to stop
Hazards
getting bad grades. The same concept follows with
Activities negative reinforcement and punishment. A
negative reinforcement would be having your extra
Self-Study chores removed after acing your next exam, and a
Game negative punishment would be having your phone
Post-Test taken away if your grades didn’t improve.
Glossary
Organ
Coordination & Reinforcement Can Activate the Rewards System
Control
When a stimulus activates the "reward system " in the brain, repeating the
Pre-Test stimulus can produce compulsive behavior to seek that stimulus. This can lead to
addictions, such as drug addiction, compulsive gambling, or over-eating. In other
Introduction words, the brain learns to become addicted. This system can also be used for
Why It Matters good. For example, being compelled to study hard for the reward of ice cream and
an A on your exam.
What We Know
The brain's "reward system" is driven partly by the neurotransmitters dopamine
How We Know and norepinephrine. If neurons in the reward system are getting bathed in these
Story Time transmitters, you feel good. Note the structural similarity of these two
transmitters.
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Coordination & People with Behavioral Dysregulation May Have Low Dopamine
Control
Brain scans, averaged over 5 people who
Pre-Test were obese and 5 people who were not
obese, with the scan tuned to detected
Introduction receptor molecules for dopamine. The
Why It Matters bright areas are where the dopamine
receptors are. The people who were obese
What We Know had fewer dopamine receptors. That is,
How We Know their reward system was not getting the
normal amount of stimulation. Similar
Story Time dopamine-receptor deficiencies have been
Common seen in drug addicts. Source: National
Hazards Institute of Drug Abuse.
Activities This could be interpreted by saying that a dysregulation in the brain reward system may
cause overeating and obesity. Another possibility is that their over-eating over-stimulates
Self-Study the dopamine system and causes the dopamine-receptor system to "down-regulate."
Game That is, the brain quits making as many receptors because there is a super-abundance of
Post-Test dopamine. Receptor down-regulation from over-stimulation has been well documented in
numerous other kinds of situations. Can you think how to test that possibility? Obesity
Glossary has other causes as well, including certain medications, diseases, hormone imbalance,
and even genetics.
Organ
Coordination & Drug Addictions
Control
Craving for any sort of drug (alcohol, tobacco,
Pre-Test cocaine, etc.), or even some actions (gambling,
gaming) seems to involve this same dopamine
Introduction reward system found in obesity. Normal
Why It Matters rewarding things, like eating ice cream or a good
steak, trigger the release of dopamine in the
What We Know reward system. This dopamine is soon destroyed
How We Know or taken back up. But taking addictive drugs tend
to promote sustained high levels of dopamine - a
Story Time chemical "flood."
Common This creates a problem. The neurons that make dopamine shut down
Hazards for a while ("down regulate" as we mentioned above). To get the
Activities same happy, feel-good experience, ordinary rewards, like ice cream
or steak, no longer make us happy. The addict has to take the drug
Self-Study to experience that same intense feeling of reward. The addict is also
Game driven by the desire to avoid the suffering experience the he feels
without the drug.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: Behavior Is Largely Learned
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters Practical Preventative Measures
What We Know 1. Don't do things that can cause you harm, even
if they "feel good" at the time.
How We Know 2. Don't repeat behaviors that are bad for you.
Story Time 3. Substitute "healthy" reinforcers for "unhealthy"
Common or addictive ones.
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Helps Us Move
Coordination & Did you know that your body is mapped in the brain? On the outer surface of
Control the brain, called the cortex, the cells send nerves to specific muscles.
Therefore, when you tell your brain that you want to move your arm to
Pre-Test
scratch your face, the brain has a map of the muscles of the arm, and it
Introduction "knows" which muscles to make contract. The motor-control cells operate
muscles on the opposite side of the body.
Why It Matters
The surface ("cortex") of the human brain that
What We Know contains the motor map is outlined in white. Cells
How We Know here issue commands to move certain body parts. A
similar sensation map of the body (the second
Story Time circled area, lies just behind the motor cortex).
Common These maps have been constructed by brain
Hazards surgeons who applied mild electrical current to
Activities different parts of the cortex and observed which
muscles contracted.
Self-Study
Game Coordination of motor commands is accomplished by the cerebellum, which lies
just above the spinal cord at the back of the brain. There are also major motor
Post-Test control systems located underneath the cortex.
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Helps Us Move Cont’d
Coordination & Common Diseases of the Motor System
Control
Stroke. If an artery on the surface of the brain gets plugged up or if
Pre-Test the vessels rupture, the blood supply to the motor cortex would be
Introduction cut off. This is a common symptom of the condition called "stroke."
The lack of blood supply kills neurons in the affected parts of the
Why It Matters motor map. The fibers coming from the motor map cross over in the
What We Know brainstem to the other side. So, if a stroke occurred on the right side
of the brain, which side would be paralyzed?
How We Know
The environment can affect the likelihood of stroke in the sense that
Story Time clogging of arteries is often caused by eating too much of the kinds
Common of food that raise the blood level of fats and cholesterol. Do you know
Hazards what foods do that? A partial list is shown below:
 Cheese, ice cream, whole milk, and other dairy
Activities
products
Self-Study  "French fried" anything
Game  Greasy hamburgers and fatty meat of any kind
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems: The Brain Helps Us Move Cont’d
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test Parkinson's Disease. Have you known or seen someone
Introduction with Parkinson's disease? In this disease, the limbs tremble
and shake uncontrollably. The cause is not a damaged
Why It Matters motor map but rather damage to one of the motor systems
What We Know located beneath the cortex. This area, called the caudate
nucleus, normally prevents trembling. But in Parkinson's
How We Know disease, the cells in the caudate do not get enough
Story Time stimulation by dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is supplied
by cells in a particular part of the brainstem.
Common
Hazards Environmental toxins may cause this disease, although the
research is not yet conclusive.
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
How We Know
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control How We Know
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning What Nerve Cells Do
Control Remember, when neurons are active, as they almost always
are even when you sleep, they do two things:
Pre-Test
• Generate electrical pulses
Introduction
• Release chemical secretions
Why It Matters Electrical Activity
What We Know A famous experiment by Luigi Galvani in the late 1700s
showed that electricity was involved in the nervous system.
How We Know
He showed, for example:
Story Time 1. Static electricity (like on a TV screen) can make an
Common animal's muscles twitch
Hazards 2. Touching a frog with a metal probe during a
Activities thunderstorm could make the frog's leg move
Self-Study These observations suggested that electricity is used in the
Game body to send messages. It was soon observed that the
Post-Test messages were carried in yellow cords that connected
muscles to the spinal cord. Next time you eat a chicken leg,
Glossary
look at the long yellow cord that lies near the major blood
vessels of the leg - it is a nerve!
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning What Nerve Cells Do Cont’d
Control Did you ever see a mechanic put a voltmeter
on the battery in the family car? Meters like
Pre-Test this register any flow of electric current. The
Introduction electricity in a nerve involves such a small
amount of high-speed current that it has to be
Why It Matters amplified and displayed by a TV-like
What We Know instrument called an oscilloscope. A complete
electrical circuit is made by touching a nerve
How We Know with a metal probe that connects to the
Story Time oscilloscope that also has a return probe back
to the animal. Then, as pulses of electricity are
Common generated in the nerve, they will be detected
Hazards by the oscilloscope, which generates a light
Activities beam that changes with each pulse from the
Self-Study nerve. Instruments like this prove that nerves
generate electrical pulses and can be used to Scientist looking at an oscilloscope.
Game Several light beams are seen, each
study what the pulses look like and the coming from a different source and
Post-Test number of pulses over time under various showing different kinds of pulses.
Glossary conditions.
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning About the Impulse “Messages”
Control Neurons respond to stimulation in various ways to communicate to other neurons what
the stimulus was. By putting metal wires next to a neuron, and viewing the electrical pulses
Pre-Test
on an oscilloscope or computer screen, we can see that nerve cell impulses are generated
Introduction whenever the cell is stimulated. Examples:
Why It Matters If you apply a stimulus, such as touching the skin, you can record
electrical activity from the nerve that supplies that part of the
What We Know
skin. You would see that the impulse discharge begins a few
How We Know thousandths of a sec (millisecond) after stimulus onset.
Story Time When the touch is applied and held on the skin, the neuron fires
Common a few impulses and then quits, even though the stimulus is still
Hazards there. This is called “adaptation” or “habituation.”
Activities A similar approach can be used for any stimulus, such as flashing visual patterns on the eye
and recording from electrodes placed at various points along the visual pathway that leads
Self-Study from the eye to the visual centers in the cerebral cortex.
Game
How do you measure impulses? From a given nerve cell, they are all the same size,
Post-Test but big differences can be seen in:
Glossary
• How many occur in a given time
• The intervals between spikes (action potentials)
• The sequential ordering of intervals
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning About the Secretion of Chemicals
Control
Pre-Test We can collect and analyze the chemicals that nerve
cells secrete into the blood. Such chemicals are called
Introduction
hormones. But neurons also secrete chemicals directly
Why It Matters on to each other. The chemicals acts as messengers
(neurotransmitters) to convey information from one
What We Know neuron to others. The action of transmitters varies with
How We Know their chemical nature, but in general they either:
Story Time  Excite

 Inhibit
Common
 Modulate (create a bias for being excited or inhibited)
Hazards
Neurotransmitters can be collected from the brain itself in
Activities
experimental animals. If different parts of the brain of a euthanized
Self-Study animal are examined, we see that the chemicals released vary with
Game different parts of the brain. Over 100 chemical secretions have been
Post-Test found in nerve tissue.
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning What Nerve Cells Do Cont’d
Control
Pre-Test What these chemicals do can be tested by injecting them in
the form of drugs or, in experimental animals, applying
Introduction them directly on nerve cells by way of an implanted tube.
Why It Matters One popular practice is to use several small glass
microtubes bundled together. One is used as an electrode to
What We Know record responses of nerve cells to chemicals that are
injected by way of the other tubes.
How We Know
These chemicals can be seen to do one of three things when
Story Time
applied to neurons:
Common
Hazards • Excite neurons (make them fire impulses)
• Inhibit neurons (reduce impulse firing)
Activities • Change the sensitivity of neurons (make them more
Self-Study or less responsive to other chemicals or electrical
Game input)
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
How Do We Know How the Brain is Wired?
Control
Pre-Test
Have you dissected a brain yet? ... perhaps a frog or a
Introduction sheep brain? You can find an Internet guide to dissection of
Why It Matters the sheep brain by clicking here.
Why It Is Hard to Know How the Brain Is Wired
What We Know
Neurons (nerve cells) are too small to see without a
How We Know microscope. And even if you use a microscope, you only see
Story Time a two-dimensional view, like this computer screen. A two-
dimensional view only lets you see information on one
Common plane. Microscopes do not allow you to see three-
Hazards
dimensional depth. The third dimension extends
Activities perpendicular (at a right angle) to the two-dimensional
Self-Study plane.
Game Neurons often have long extensions of their cell body that
Post-Test go in all three dimensions.
Glossary
Organ How Do We Know How the Brain is Wired?
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Cont’d Look at this diagram of a neuron. At the top is the cell
body with its nucleus. The cell body gives rise to a long
Pre-Test extension (called an axon) that projects to a target,
Introduction either a muscle, a gland, or another neuron. Near the end
of the axon are many, many small branches.
Why It Matters
Now, think what this would look like if you cut across the
What We Know neuron and saw a two-dimensional picture of the cut at
the top line. Can you draw it? You would see a green dot
How We Know
on the left, followed by a large white space, followed by a
Story Time blue piece of nucleus, followed by another white space,
Common and ending in a small green dot on the right.
Hazards Make similar two-dimensional drawings of what you would
Activities see at a cut in the middle and another cut at the bottom
Self-Study of the picture. Such cross cuts would not tell you much
Game about what a neuron looks like, would it? It would show
even less about where this neuron's extensions go to
Post-Test
connect with other neurons.
Glossary
So how do scientists figure out where neurons go?
Click here for a video on how scientists learned about
axons in squids.
Organ How Do We Know How the Brain is Wired?
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Cont’d
Tracing Neural Pathways
Pre-Test Several techniques help scientists know where neurons go. Much of this
research is done on anesthetized animals, but the major pathways have been
Introduction confirmed in various ways in humans:
Why It Matters 1. Kill the neurons (with toxins or heat), and see where else in
What We Know the brain degeneration appears. Other regions of the brain that
received information from the killed neurons will also die.
How We Know 2. Electrically stimulate an area and record in various other
Story Time places to see where you get electrical responses. The responses have
to be quick (less than a few thousandths of a second) to be a
Common
Hazards meaningful indicator of a direct connection. By various multiple links,
you could say that everything in the brain eventually connects to
Activities everything else.
Self-Study
3. Inject radioactive tracers into a known area, and observe where
Game
the radiation shows up. Neurons transport materials (including certain
Post-Test radioactive compounds) down their axons. Not only can you see where
Glossary the tracers end up but the rate of their appearance tells you the
transport rate.
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning What the Whole Brain Does
Control Brain Waves – Known as EEG (electroencephalogram)
Pre-Test The brain generates electrical currents. Some of these currents in the
part of the brain that is nearest to the scalp are large enough to be
Introduction detected with electrodes placed on the scalp. This electrical activity is
Why It Matters small (on the order of 20 to 100 thousandths of a volt). The activity
detected by any one electrode is a summation of the voltage fields
What We Know created by thousands of neurons nearest to the electrode.
How We Know
By placing electrodes in an orderly way,
Story Time it is possible to know what areas of the
Common cortex are being monitored by any
Hazards given electrode. Pictured here is the
Activities standardized electrode placement
system used in clinical medicine.
Self-Study
Game A useful Web site that explains the EEG
and how it changes in different diseases
Post-Test is found by clicking here.
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning What the Whole Brain Does Cont’d
Control Imaging
Pre-Test The EEG can be used to create a mapped image of the electrical activity over the
surface of the brain. Other kinds of images allow scientists to see what is going on
Introduction deep inside the brain, where the voltages are too small to be detected by
Why It Matters electrodes at the surface.
These other techniques indirectly measure either blood flow or oxygen
What We Know consumption at various brain areas.
How We Know Left: Example of a brain image, using the PET (Positron
Story Time Emission Tomography) scan method. The more active an area
is, the more oxygen it consumes and the more blood flow it
Common
gets. These more active areas show as bright red or orange
Hazards
colors in image maps. For more information on PET scans,
Activities click here. An fMRI Image with the
yellow areas showing
Self-Study A newer imaging technique, seen to the right, increased activity.
Game is called fMRI (functional magnetic resonance By OpenStax -
Post-Test imaging), which is easier to perform and https://cnx.org/contents/FPtK1
zmh@8.25:fEI3C8Ot@10/Pre
provides similar information about blood flow face, CC BY 4.0,
Glossary
and oxygen consumption. https://commons.wikimedia.or
g/w/index.php?
curid=30147912
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Learning What the Whole Brain Does Cont’d
Control Imaging allows us to test such questions as: "Can you walk
and chew gum at the same time?" Well, of course you can,
Pre-Test but the point is would you do things better if you did them
Introduction one at a time. In one study, people were imaged while they
performed two mental tasks, either separately or at the
Why It Matters same time. The amount of brain activity devoted to each
What We Know task was greater when the tasks were performed separately
than when done at the same time. Common experience
How We Know teaches this too. If you really want to "get into" a music
Story Time recording, you close your eyes, right?
Common Imaging equipment can be tuned to detect metabolic

Hazards activity or volume of cells. Recent studies of brain volume
show a marked maturation process in children. The re-
Activities wiring causes cells to die at a rate of about 1% per year.
Self-Study This is a normal process of "pruning" away nerve cells that
Game are not useful. In children who develop schizophrenia, the
Post-Test death rate is much faster, and they don't have enough
neurons left to function normally.
Glossary
Click here for a complete middle-school level overview of all
the methods used to learn about the nervous system.
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Storytime
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
Why It Matters
"Curiosity killed the cat." As a child, Walter
What We Know
had been told that curiosity was a disease
How We Know and a low vice. He had heard of preachers
who said that it was curiosity that created
Story Time
the original sin of Adam and Eve in seeking
Common the forbidden fruit of the Tree of
Hazards Knowledge. Knowing that could not change
Walter from being who he was. He was
Activities born curious. Later in his life, Walter came
Self-Study to proclaim that curiosity is a necessity for
Game success in scientific discovery.
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control Storytime
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Childhood Years
Control Walter was not an egghead. But his father, a manager on the Great Northern
Railroad, helped train him to be independent and resourceful in ways that
Pre-Test
neither of them realized would someday equip Walter to become one of the
Introduction most famous scientists of all time. As a child, Walter's father refused to buy
him toys, even when they had the money to do so. Walter's father was an
Why It Matters
expert at using tools and worked with Walter to help him make his own toys.
What We Know The skill at making toys later translated for Walter into making ingenious
devices that were necessary for his experiments on bodily functions. In the
How We Know picture you see Walter playing with his "big-kid" toys. Maybe you have heard
Story Time the old saying, "The difference between a man and a boy is the price of his
toys!"
Common
Hazards None of his ancestors were eggheads either. But his family was restless and
even curious. Both on his father's and mother's side, the men and women
Activities were always moving into new ventures. Many of his relatives were pioneers
Self-Study on the Canadian and U.S. frontiers. His father, Colbert Cannon, never finished
Game school because he needed to help support his family during the Civil War.
After the war, Colbert worked for the Great Northern Railroad and eventually
Post-Test was promoted to the superintendent of transportation. His hobby was to
Glossary tinker, always inventing new procedures and devices for the railroad.
Unfortunately, his father was prone to bouts of deep depression, which made
it difficult for Walter to have a completely happy childhood.
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Childhood Years Cont’d
Control Walter's mother was known for being meticulous - a "neatnik" as we
might say today. She also worried a lot and was anxious about little
Pre-Test
things. Walter did not have many memories of his mother because
Introduction when he was only 10 she caught pneumonia and died. One thing
Walter never forgot was that on her deathbed she called Walter to
Why It Matters
her side and said, "Walter, be good to the world."
What We Know Few would have guessed that Walter would someday become a
How We Know famous scientist. When he was 14, Walter was taken out of school by
his father, who thought he was doing poorly. Walter worked for his
Story Time dad's railroad for two years before going back to school and getting
Common serious about learning. Eventually he became a productive student,
Hazards but Walter's first love was sports. He especially liked ice skating,
hockey, and bobsledding (he grew up in Minnesota and Wisconsin).
Activities During warm months, he played football, baseball, and tennis.
Self-Study His father was concerned about Walter's education. Though
Game uneducated himself, Colbert Cannon knew that education was
Post-Test important and made sure that there was a good supply of books and
serious magazines around the house.
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Childhood Years Cont’d
Control
Walter was led to science in high school. At that
Pre-Test time there was a raging national debate about
Introduction Charles Darwin's theory of evolution (see Natural
Selection: What We Know?). The chief advocate for
Why It Matters Darwin was a biologist named Thomas Huxley (see
What We Know Natural Selection: Storytime). Walter became
intrigued by these issues and spent many hours
How We Know reading papers and essays on the topic by Huxley
Story Time and others. In the process, Walter discovered that
he understood what he was reading, and this
Common motivated him to want to go to college.
Hazards
One of his teachers, Miss M. J. Newson, an English
Activities teacher, took a special interest in Walter and
encouraged him. She also helped him get
Self-Study
Game admission and a scholarship to Harvard.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Becoming a Scientist
Control
Pre-Test Walter had to work part-time jobs at Harvard. But despite
that, he took an overload of courses, including graduate
Introduction
courses. He graduated in 1896 with high honors. Looking
Why It Matters back on his college days, Walter concluded that one of the
most important things he learned was how to manage his
What We Know
time. His hectic schedule required him to learn to focus on
How We Know the task at hand and finish it rapidly and correctly.
Story Time Walter was admitted to Harvard Medical School. Even while
going to Medical School, he was hired to teach animal
Common anatomy to non-medical students. Walter finished Medical
Hazards School in 1900, fulfilling his father's dream that he become
Activities a physician. But Walter never became the kind of doctor his
father had wanted. In the process of getting a medical
Self-Study education, Walter became more interested in the science of
Game medicine than in the practice of medicine.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Scientific Discoveries
Control In research, Walter had many successes. He discovered much about
how digestion occurs and invented the radioactive barium technique
Pre-Test
for following the movement of food and fluid through the gastro-
Introduction intestinal tract. He discovered what the adrenal gland does and
discovered the adrenaline-like compound that many nerve cells
Why It Matters
release. He discovered a role for emotions in adrenaline release. He
What We Know coined the idea of the "fight or flight" control systems of the body.
Cannon was the first to use the word "stress" in a biological rather
How We Know than engineering context. He helped explain how the body stays in
Story Time functional balance through the opposite actions of different parts of
the nervous system. This research led him to develop the concept of
Common "homeostasis," which is the idea that normal bodily function requires
Hazards a steady balance in the function of various organ systems. The lack
Activities of such balance, or homeostasis, is disease.
Self-Study But Walter also had his failures. He spent several years trying to
Game understand the function of the thyroid gland, work that was
eventually accomplished by others.
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Scientific Discoveries Cont’d
Control Much of Walter's research was conducted under primitive conditions, even if
he was at Harvard. After all, the research was done in the early 1900s when
Pre-Test
they did not have the "high tech" environments that we have today. He recalls
Introduction apologizing and complaining to a visitor to Harvard for small, dark, and ill-
equipped laboratories, and the visitor replied, "I have never noticed that the
Why It Matters
nature of the cage determined the singing of the bird."
What We Know One thing that Walter did have at Harvard and in the culture of the United
How We Know States was freedom. In his autobiography, Walter pointed out that other
scientists have not fared so well. Galileo, the famous astronomer, was
Story Time condemned by the Church of his day. Priestly, the discoverer of oxygen, had
Common his home in England ransacked, his material possessions destroyed, and he
Hazards was forced to flee to the United States. Lavoisier, the famous French chemist,
was guillotined by French revolutionaries who had "no need of scholars."
Activities Jewish German scientists, including Albert Einstein, were forced to flee
Self-Study Germany prior to World War II.
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Scientific Discoveries Cont’d
Control But science was good to Walter, and Walter was good to
science. As his dying mother had requested of him, in
Pre-Test
being good to science, he was good to the world. As the
Introduction end of his career loomed, Walter took comfort in the
words of a poetic colleague, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell:
Why It Matters
I know the night is near at hand.
What We Know The mists lie low on hill and bay,
How We Know The autumn sheaves are dewless, dry;
But I have had the day.
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
References
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction Wolfe, E. L., Barger, A. C., and Benison, S. 2000. Walter
Why It Matters B. Cannon: Science and Society. Harvard U. Press,
Cambridge.
What We Know
How We Know Cannon, Walter B. 1968. The Way of an Investigator.
Hafner, New York.
Story Time
Cannon, Walter B. 1939. The Wisdom of the Body, 2nd
Common
Hazards Edition. W. W. Norton. New York.
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common Hazards
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control Common Hazards
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Cholinesterase Inhibitors
Control
Pre-Test Can you imagine a family of chemicals that have
Introduction been used for everything from pesticides to
medicines to biochemical weapons of war? Well,
Why It Matters there is such a group of compounds. They are
called cholinesterase inhibitors. The name says
What We Know
what they do: they inhibit an enzyme
How We Know called cholinesterase.
Story Time Remember in "What We Know" when we talked
Common about how nerve cells communicate with each
Hazards other and with muscle by releasing chemical
messengers (neurotransmitters)? One of the more
Activities common neurotransmitters is acetylcholine.
Self-Study Acetylcholine is the transmitter at all junctions of
Game nerves and skeletal and heart muscle, intestines,
Post-Test bladder, blood vessels, and glands.
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control So what do you think would happen if these acetylcholine nerves were continuously active
and releasing acetylcholine to their target nerve, gland, and muscle cells? Would the buildup
Pre-Test of acetylcholine cause excessive action on their targets? Think about muscle, for example.
Introduction Release of acetylcholine causes muscle cells to contract. But if acetylcholine were always
there, your muscles would be constantly contracting - you would be in a constant state of
Why It Matters convulsion.
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control Even animals as primitive as insects have evolved a way to get rid of
excess acetylcholine. They have an enzyme, cholinesterase,
Pre-Test present in the junctions of acetylcholine neurons that destroys
Introduction acetylcholine. What would happen if we had a pesticide chemical that
could stop the action of cholinesterase in insects? With no enzyme to
Why It Matters destroy cholinesterase, acetylcholine would “pile up” in the junctions.
What We Know In the case of insects on which these pesticides are used, they die
because they cannot pump air in and out and because their "heart"
How We Know stops pumping.
Story Time Many well-known insecticides are
Common cholinesterase inhibitors (See table
Hazards on next slide). These compounds
are used in hand sprayers for
Activities home gardens as well as in crop
Self-Study dusting airplanes for large farms.
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Image: By Stefan Krause, Germany - Own work, FAL,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28262700
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test So where is the environmental hazard with pesticides?
Introduction One potential hazard is in careless handling of the
pesticide, which is highly concentrated as it is sold in
Why It Matters garden and farm stores. Spilling the concentrate on your
What We Know skin could cause poisoning. Residues on food that is not
thoroughly washed before eating can create a hazard.
How We Know Obviously, little children should be kept away from such
chemicals, so they don't accidentally get exposed to
Story Time
concentrate.
Common
Hazards
Common Pesticides that
Activities Inhibit Cholinesterase
Self-Study malathion
Game
parathion
Post-Test sevin
Glossary diazinon
Organ Symptoms of Cholinesterase Inhibitor Poisoning in
Systems:
Coordination & Humans
Control
• Muscle weakness • Blurry vision
Pre-Test • Difficulty walking • Vomiting
Introduction • Wheezing, coughing • Sweating
• Difficulty breathing • Seizures, coma
Why It Matters
These compounds contaminate the environment. They are
What We Know toxic not only to insects but also to fish, birds, and other
wildlife. Because insecticides pollute the environment,
How We Know people are becoming increasingly interested in utilizing
Story Time nature's own weapons against insects. This has led to the
practice called "integrated pest management," an
Common approach to insect and disease control that includes:
Hazards "Integrated Pest
Activities  the genetic engineering of plants that either resist Management" uses many
insects or that give off odors or tastes that repel approaches for controlling
Self-Study insects
Game insects
Click here for a history of inte
grated Pest Management
Post-Test  the use of bacteria or viruses that are toxic to
insects (Be patient - may take a
Glossary while to load this page)
 the use of animals (purple martin birds, wasps,
frogs, snakes) that feed on insects
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Cholinesterase Inhibitors - Medical Uses
Control
Pre-Test
Cholinesterase inhibitors can have valuable medical uses.
Introduction
Acetylcholine is the chemical messenger at many points in the
Why It Matters nervous system, notably the junctions between:
What We Know  nerve cells and skeletal muscle

 nerve cells and heart muscle
How We Know
Story Time  nerve cells and glands
Common  nerve cells and other nerve cells, including

Hazards in the periphery, the spinal cord, and the
brain
Activities
Many vital functions could be affected by drug manipulation of the
Self-Study acetylcholine messenger. There are cases where physicians might
Game
want to increase neurochemical signaling by increasing the amount of
Post-Test acetylcholine in these junctions.
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Cholinesterase Inhibitors - Medical Uses
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction Some conditions that are known to benefit from enhancing
Why It Matters acetylcholine action with cholinesterase inhibitor drugs are:
 Alzheimer's disease/memory loss
What We Know
 reversing carbon monoxide coma
How We Know
 glaucoma
Story Time
A common prescription drug used for these purposes is
Common
Hazards physostigmine.
Activities Knowing what you now know about how cholinesterase

inhibitors work, you no doubt realize that overdose can be
Self-Study dangerous. Too much of a good thing is a bad thing.
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Cholinesterase Inhibitors - Biochemical Warfare: Nerve Gas
Coordination & Weapons
Control By modifying the molecules of cholinesterase inhibitor
compounds, scientists have discovered ways to make
Pre-Test them more potent. That is, a small amount of chemical
Introduction has the same effect as a much larger amount. Scientists
did this work in an effort to make insecticides more
Why It Matters economical so that farmers would not have to use so
What We Know much.
Unfortunately, evil people realized that such potent
How We Know
chemicals could be used for terrorist attacks. On March
Story Time 20, 1995, twelve people were killed and over 5,000 were
Common injured when a nerve gas called "sarin" was released in
Hazards the Tokyo subway system. In Iraq, Saddam Hussein used
nerve gas on his enemies in the Northern part of Iraq.
Activities People may have also been exposed to nerve agents
Self-Study during the conflict ("Gulf War") in the Middle East. Many
Game countries either have access to these dangerous weapons
Post-Test or have the technical knowledge to make them.
Glossary Some kinds of nerve gas are so toxic that a single drop
on the skin can kill you in a few minutes. Click here for
information from the CDC on sarin.
Organ
Systems:
Cholinesterase Inhibitors - Biochemical Warfare: Nerve Gas
Coordination & Weapons
Control
Pre-Test Treatment
Introduction The same principles are used to treat any case
Why It Matters of cholinesterase inhibitor poisoning, whether from
pesticides, drug overdose, or nerve gas attack.
What We Know Specifically, you want to use a drug that either destroys
cholinesterase inhibitors or that blocks the action of
How We Know acetylcholine. There are no good drugs that destroy
Story Time cholinesterase inhibitors, but acetylcholine blockers have
Common been used medically for many decades. One drug that
Hazards you may have heard about is atropine. Atropine and
related compounds work rather well for mild poisoning,
Activities but they are often inadequate for treating nerve gas
Self-Study attack.
Game
More information on cholinesterase inhibitors can be
Post-Test found in Unit 2 of the Properties of Hazards module.
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Activities
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control Activities
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Click to download an activity
Control
Pre-Test • Student Activity Sheet #1 – Brain Size
• Student Activity Sheet #2 – Conditioned Learning
Introduction • Student Activity Sheet #3 – Memory Consolidation
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Self-Study Game
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Coordination & Control Self-Study Game
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Click to play a game
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction • Quizizz
Why It Matters
What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
Organ
Systems:
Coordination &
Post-Test
Control
Pre-Test
Introduction
Why It Matters
What We Know Click below to take the post-test for this unit!
How We Know • Google assessment
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
A-Ins
Organ
Systems: Glossary
Coordination & action potential - (also known as spike or impulse) a rapid change in membrane voltage
Control
("potential") from negative (-70 mV in nerve cells) to positive and then back to negative. This
Pre-Test causes an electrical current that proceeds down an axon. Return to How We Know
Introduction bipolar disorder - a personality disorder in which the person oscillates between a deep
depression and elation or happiness. Usually the changes are gradual, but can be very
Why It Matters sudden. This disorder used to be called manic depressive disorder. Return to Why It Matters
What We Know cross section - a cut through a structure or tissue that is perpendicular to its main axis.
Return to What We Know
How We Know
degeneration - the breaking up of cell structures in association with death of a cell. Return to
Story Time How We Know
Common dementia - severe loss of brain capability that interferes with social ability or ability to work.
Hazards Return to Why It Matters
Activities extensor muscles - in most cases, muscles that straighten joints (as opposed to flexing a
joint). Return to What We Know
Self-Study
Game flexor muscles - in most cases, muscles that bend joints so that the attachments move closer
together. Return to What We Know
Post-Test
insomnia - a disorder in which the person can't seem to get a good night's sleep. This can be
Glossary due to the fact that the person can't fall asleep at all, keeps waking up in the night and then
can't fall back asleep, or just does not feel rested after sleeping. Return to Why It Matters
Inv-N
Organ
Systems: Glossary
Coordination & involuntary actions - actions that occur without conscious choice or thought. Examples
Control
include breathing, digestion, heart beating, and reflexes. Return to What We Know
Pre-Test ions - an atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons. Thus, a positively charged ion is
Introduction one that has lost an electron and a negatively charged ion is one that has gained an electron.
Return to What We Know
Why It Matters
lateral - toward the sides or away from the middle. For example, on your head, your ears are
What We Know lateral whereas your nose is medial (towards the middle). Return to What We Know
How We Know nerve - a bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system. It is like an insulated cable
Story Time carrying electrical impulses to different parts of the body. Example: the sciatic nerve. Return to
What We Know
Common neuron - a nerve cell. These cells conduct electricity in the form of action potentials (pulses of
Hazards
electricity) throughout the nervous system in the body. Return to How We Know
Activities neurotransmitter - a chemical messenger secreted by a neuron at the end of an axon after
Self-Study an electrical impulse has travelled down the axon. These molecules then cross the synapse and
Game bind to proteins on the membrane of the following neuron and cause an excitatory or inhibitory
reaction. Return to What We Know
Post-Test
Glossary
O-S
Organ
Systems: Glossary
Coordination & obsessive-compulsive disorder - an anxiety disorder in which the person has obsessive,
Control
repetitive thoughts and compulsively performs certain actions that are senseless and
Pre-Test distressing (such as constantly cleaning or counting). Return to Why It Matters
Introduction post-traumatic stress disorder - a common anxiety disorder that occurs after a severe
tragedy in which the person was in grave danger or thought they were in grave danger.
Why It Matters Family members or close friends can also get the disorder when someone experiences a grave
What We Know tragedy. Common symptoms include flashbacks of the event, sleep disturbances, depression,
anxiety, irritability, and outbursts of anger. Return to Why It Matters
How We Know
rupture - break or bust open. Return to What We Know
Story Time stimulus - anything that causes a neuron to react. Sometimes the stimulus is so small, that
Common the neuron does not fire (does not send information) and the person does not "feel" anything
Hazards or react to the stimulus. Return to How We Know
Activities synapse - the point of connection and communication between two neurons. This is a gap at
which chemicals called neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and received by
Self-Study another. Return to What We Know
Game
Post-Test
Glossary
U-V
Organ
Systems: Glossary
Coordination & unipolar depressive disorder - (also known as major depressive disorder) a disorder in
Control
which the person to dives into a deep depression for weeks to years (if not treated). About
Pre-Test one in five Americans will experience some type of depression at least once in their lifetime.
Return to Why It Matters
Introduction
ventral - the lower side or underneath. Usually having to do with the chest. Opposite of dorsal
Why It Matters (back). Return to What We Know
What We Know voluntary actions - action that is consciously done and that an organism has full control over.
Examples include talking, walking, typing/writing, etc. Return to What We Know
How We Know
Story Time
Common
Hazards
Activities
Self-Study
Game
Post-Test
Glossary

Life Science Organ Systems Nervous System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Life Science Organ Systems Nervous System

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Life Science Organ Systems Nervous System

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Organ Systems

Coordination & Control

Common  Stroke: interruption of blood supply to brain, due

Glossary Diagram from: https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/GlossaryDescription/65/0

Post-Test Moral of the story: if you want to learn and

Self-Study Ability to focus and concentrate is learned. If we

Why It Matters Sleep as a Mixture of

Story Time 3. Ion distributions and neurotransmitter systems may have to be

Post-Test Distractions and conflicting stimuli should be kept to a

How We Know Age and Learning A Second Language

Why It Matters Laughter is one clear difference from animals

Story Time  Excite

Common Imaging equipment can be tuned to detect metabolic

What We Know  nerve cells and skeletal muscle

Common  nerve cells and other nerve cells, including

Activities Knowing what you now know about how cholinesterase

You might also like