Data Communications System & Networks

Lecture No.3 & 4

By
PROF. DR. ABDUL QADEER KHAN
RAJPUT
Basic
Basic Terminology
Terminology
 DATA
 
Data in telecommunication is the content to be communicated. It may be
analog or digital in nature.
 SIGNAL
 
Signal is defined as, A time-dependent variation of a physical quantity
used to represent data. For example, an audio signal contains time
variation of sound energy, and an electrical signal is the time variation of
voltage or current.
 WAVEFORM
A graphic representation of the shape of a wave that indicates its
characteristics, such as frequency and amplitude.
 WAVELENGTH
 
The distance from one point of a periodic waveform to the
same point in the next cycle. It is denoted by c, and is
measured in meters.

λ

 FREQUENCY

The rate of signal oscillation or the rate at which a signal varies is

called its frequency. It is expressed in hertz. The frequency and
wavelength are related by:

ƒ= c
λ
Where c is speed of light in vacuum, and c is 3x108 m/sec.
 
CHANNEL
A path along which signals can be sent, for example, data
channel output channel.
 BAUD RATE
 The rate at which signal is varied is called baud rate, it is expressed in bits
per second.
 DATA RATE
 
The rate at which data bits are sent, it is also expressed in bits per
second.
 
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM FOR
TELECOMMUNICATION
After the signal is transmitted in space it becomes electromagnetic wave.
The specifications of source and transmitting media (Twisted Pair, Coaxial
Cable, Wireless Media, and Optical Fibre) are displayed in the figure. The
classification of Radio Frequency System used by different communication
systems (from ELF to Visible) are classified. This spectrum can further be
classified in terms of Audio Frequency and Radio Frequency. The audio
frequency signals are in audible range and high frequencies are in radio
frequency range. These waves which are neither heard nor seen, travel
through space with the velocity of light i.e. 3x108 m/sec.
 REVIEW OF COMPLEX WAVEFORMS
It is from the fact that all the complex waveforms are made up of a number
of sine waves. Any type of waveform can be formed by superimposing
number of sine waves at different frequencies that are called harmonics.
Surely, it can be proven that such waveforms consist of sine wave in
specific phase, frequency, and amplitude.
T0 T1 T1

+v

-v

+v

-v

-v

1ms

Fig. Sine wave and Square wave (time domain)

 SINE WAVE
Fig 1. A. is a time domain representation of the sine wave. It shows the
wave, as it would appear on the oscilloscope display (time-amplitude).

Fig 1.2. Frequency domain representation of sine wave

Fig. 1.2 shows the same wave as it appears on the spectrum analyzer
display. This device analyzes the wave’s frequency domain characteristics
(frequency-amplitude).
It is actually a bar graph showing all frequency components contained
within a wave. For example, a 5 volt-1 ms wave on time-amplitude scale
has its frequency-amplitude display at 1 kHz. Therefore, it appears as a bar
of 5 volt at 1 kHz.
 SQUARE WAVE

Fig. 1.3. Square wave composition

Fig. 1.3 A. shows one cycle of a 1 kHz square wave. This is made up of large number of sine waves. More
specifically, a perfect square wave is composed of a fundamental frequency and an infinite number of
odd numbered harmonics.
 
The result of adding 1st and 3rd harmonics is shown in Fig. 1.3. B. and the result of the addition of 1st,
3rd, and 5th harmonic is shown in Fig. 1.3.C.
 
Note that the resulting waveform is approaching to a true square wave representation.
 Fig 1.4. Square Wave Frequency domain representation
 
Fig.1.4 shows the frequency domain representation of the same square wave.
Due to large number of frequency components, the bandwidth required to
transmit such wave is much more. That’s why mostly over long distances
and generally on wireless media these waves are converted into analog and
then transmitted.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The Electromagnetic waves are produced by the oscillation or acceleration of

an electric charge. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic
components. Electromagnetic radiation can be arranged in a spectrum that
extends from waves of extremely high frequency and short wavelength to
extremely low frequency and long wavelength.
 PROPERTIES
 Electromagnetic waves need no material medium for their transmission
.
 Regardless of their frequency and wavelength, electromagnetic waves travel
at the same speed in a vacuum. i.e. exactly 299,792.458 km (approximately
186,282 miles) per second in a vacuum.

 All the components of the electromagnetic spectrum also show the typical
properties of wave motion, including diffraction and interference.

 The wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic waves are important in

determining their heating effect, visibility, penetration, and
other characteristics.
 COMMON DATA TYPES IN COMMINATIONS
 

Data Type Bandwidth

Required
Text 2 kHz

Voice 4 kHz
 
Video 6 MHz
 WHAT IS BANDWIDTH?

It is the band of frequencies occupied by a transmitted

modulated signal and lying to each side of center
frequency. Mathematically it is given as:
 

BW = f2 – f1
 THE AUDIO SIGNAL

The sound is a sort of disturbance which requires some physical medium

for its propagation. Human voice consists of series of compressions and
rarefactions, and travels through air with a speed of about 345 m/s. The
frequency range of human voice is from 20 – 4000 Hz which lies within
audible frequency range of 20 – 20,000 Hz. The sound waves can be
converted into electrical signals at audio frequency by the help of a
microphone.

As a result of receiving a sound signal the microphone produces an AF

sound current, whose positive half cycle is due to compression and
negative half cycle is due to rarefactions of sound.
 MODULATION SIGNAL

As a result of receiving a sound signal the microphone produces an AF

sound current, whose positive half cycle is due to compression and
negative half cycle is due to rarefactions of sound.
 MODULATED SIGNAL

 
The resultant of the modulation is called a modulated signal.
 WHAT IS CARRIER?

It is a sinusoidal wave, at higher frequency (than that of modulating

signal) used for modulation purpose. Mathematically it is expressed as:

e  Ec sin( c t   )  E c sin( 2f c t   )

Where e is instantaneous value of the voltage, Ec is Maximum amplitude of carrier

wave, fc is frequency of carrier wave, and Ø is Phase of carrier wave
 MODULATION

Varying one of the characteristics (i.e. frequency, amplitude, or phase) of

the carrier wave, with the modulating signal is called modulation.

So, there are three types of modulations

 (1) Amplitude Modulation (AM): where the amplitude
of the carrier wave is varied according to the modulating
signal.

 (2) Frequency Modulation (FM): where the frequency

of the carrier wave is varied according to the modulating
signal.

 Phase Modulation (AM): where the phase of the carrier

wave is varied according to the modulating signal.
 WHY DO WE NEED MODULATION?

  Ø The audio signals have relatively short wavelengths.

 

 The size of antenna should be at least λ/4,

  = c/f
 = 3x108/20000 = 15000
 / 4 = 3750m = 3.75 km 
This much size of antenna is practically impossible.
Ø     If more than one station starts transmitting at the same AF (Audio
Frequency) there would be a lot of interference.
 
 THE FOUR SCENARIOS OF COMMUNICATIONS

 Analog Data, Analog Signals (AM, FM, PM)

Analog Data
Analog Signal
(sound waves)
Telephone

 Digital Data, Analog Signals (ASK, FSK, PSK)

Digital Data (Binary Voltage Pulses) Analog Signal (Modulated on carrier frequency)
Modem

 Analog Data, Digital Signals (PAM, PWM, PCM)

Analog Data
(Voice or Video) Digital Data
CODEC

 Digital Data, Digital Signals (NRZ, Bipolar, Manchester)

Digital Data Digital Signal

Encoder
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DATA RATE
AND BANDWIDTH
1 0 1 0 1
A

-A
T=1/f1

 Duration of each pulse = 1/2f1

 Thus the data rate = 2f1(bps)

Consider:
s(t) =1/ [ sin(f1t)+1/3sin (2  (3f1t)+1/5 sin(2  (5f1t)+1/7 sin(2  f1t)+….]
Let:
I
 A digital transmission system with 4MHz Bandwidth
 What data rate can be achieved ?
 Let f1= 1MHz
 BW = (5x106) –106= 4 MHz of the signal
Data rate = 2x106 = 2 Mbps is achieved.

II  let BW transmission system is 8MHz

 let f1=2MHz
 BW = (5x2 x 106) – (2x106) = 8 MHz
 Data rate = 2x2 x106 = 4 Mbps

If we reduce the approximation of square wave to 3rd harmonic.

F1= 2MHz

BW= (3x2x106)- (2x106) = 4 MHz of signal

Data rate = 2xf1 4Mbps

 Thus a given bandwidth can support various data rate. Depending on requirement of receiver.

 There is a direct relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth: the higher the data rate of a signal, the
greater is its effective bandwidth of.

OR The greater the bandwidth of a transmission system, the higher is the data rate that can be transmitted
over that system.
 DATA & SIGNALS

 
Analog Signal Digital Signal

Analog Data Two alternatives: 1.    Signal Analog Data is encoded using a
occupies same spectrum as CODEC to produce a digital bit
analog data. 2.  Analog data is stream.
modulated to occupy a different
spectrum e.g. CATV.

Digital Data Two alternatives: 1.     Signal

consists of two voltage levels to
Digital Data is encoded using a represent 1s and 0s. 2.  Digital data
modem to produce analog signal. is encoded to produce a digital signal
with desired properties.
 TREATMENT OF SIGNALS

  Analog Transmission Digital Transmission

Analog Signal Propagated through Signal is converted into digital

amplifiers (or boosters). (at the repeater), and then
  propagated through repeaters, it
 
is then converted back to analog
and propagated further.

Digital Signal Not used. Signal is propagated through

repeaters. At the repeater the
stream of 1s and 0s is recovered
(i.e. error correction) and
regenerated
DIGITAL IS PREFERRED METHOD OF
TRANSMISSION
Reseasons
 Digital Technology:
 Continuing drop in cost and size.
 Analog circuitry has not responded.

 Data Integrity:
 Repeaters rather than amplifiers, so effects of noise are not cumulative.
 Possible to transmit over longer distance keeping integrity of data.

 Capacity Utilization:
 Economical to build transmission links of very high bandwidth.
 A high degree of multiplexing is needed.

 Security and privacy:

 Encryption Techniques

 Integration:
 By treating analog and digital data digitally, voice, video and data can be integrated
 EFFECTIVE NOISE
Noise add, attention distort the Signal.

Impulse noise; less problem to analog data but primary source of error in
digital data communication
 Data rate:
The rate in bps at which data can be communicated

 Bandwidth:
 Bandwidth of transmitted signal as constrained by the
transmitted in Hz.

 Noise :
The average level of noise over communication path

 Error rate: The rate at which error occurs.

 Scenario No. 1

ANALOG DATA, ANALOG SIGNAL

Telephone Public Switch Radio tower Radio tower Public Switch Telephone

Modulating Signal
The signal that modulates or changes the characteristics of the carrier.

Modulated Signal
The resultant of the modulation is called a modulated signal.
 WHAT IS CARRIER?

It is a sinusoidal wave, at higher frequency (than that of modulating signal)

used for modulation purpose. Mathematically it is expressed as
 
e  E c sin( c t   )  E c sin( 2f c t   )

where,
e = instantaneous value of the voltage
Ec = Maximum amplitude of carrier wave
fc = frequency of carrier wave
Ø = Phase of carrier wave
MODULATION

Varying one of the characteristics

(i.e. frequency, amplitude, or phase) of
the carrier wave, with the modulating
signal is called modulation.
So, there are three types of modulations 
1.     Amplitude Modulation (AM): where the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied according to
the modulating signal.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): where the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to
the modulating signal.
3. Phase Modulation (AM): where the phase of the carrier wave is varied according to the
modulating signal.
 WHY DO WE NEED MODULATION ?
 o       The audio signals have relatively short wavelengths.
 o       The size of antenna should be at least λ/4,

c

f
3 x10 8
  15000
20000

 3750m  3.75km
4

This much size of antenna is practically impossible.

o o       If more than one station starts transmitting at the same AF (Audio Frequency) there would
o be a lot of interference.
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)

One of the most fundamental forms of modulation used in telecommunications is am-

plitude modulation (AM). The transmission of music and speech in the commercial AM
broadcast band is an example of the widespread use of AM.

Defining AM
 
Amplitude modulation is defined as a carrier frequency whose amplitude is varied in
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of a modulating voltage. The modulating
voltage is referred to as the intelligence. The carrier frequency, or carrier of the
modulating voltage, is typically much higher then that of the modulating voltage. It is
usually a Radio Frequency (RF) signal in the Mid-Frequency (MF) range of 300 kHz to
3 MHz or, higher. In contrast, the frequency of the modulating voltage is typically an
Audio Frequency (AF) signal in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
 GENERATING THE AM WAVEFORM
 
If a l-kHz tone is transmitted at I MHz, it seems that we can get AM waveform by just
summing the two signals. Let’s see the effect by the use of Summing amplifier
The resulting waveform is not the AM wave, because it is only the sum of the
amplitudes of the two waves, the frequency components remain independent of
each other.
 
On the other hand an AM modulator produces the sum and difference products of
the carrier and the modulation frequencies.
 
All the AM modulator circuits use a nonlinear device such as a diode or a transistor
biased in its non- linear region. Nonlinear devices produce output signals that are
not in proportion to their input. Combining two frequencies through a nonlinear
device produces a mixing action, resulting in harmonics as well as sum and
difference frequencies of the original signals. See the figure below
ANLAYSIS OF AM WAVE
The carrier is represented by vc  Vc sin c t
 
 
And the sinusoidal modulating signal is represented by vm  Vm sin m t
 
 
 
mv mv
The resultant AM wave is v AM  Vc sin  c t  c cos( c   m )t  c cos( c   m )t
2 2
 
where v AM  Ins tan tan eous voltage of AM wave
Vc sin  c t  Ins tan tan eous value of Carrier wave
mvc
cos( c   m )t  Lower Sideband ( LSB )
2
mvc
cos( c   m )t  Upper Sideband (USB)
2
 MODULATION INDEX

The Modulation Index or degree of modulation is the ratio of the peak amplitude of the
modulation voltage, to that of carrier voltage. It is also called depth of modulation. It is a number
between 0 and 1.
Vm
Modulation Index  m 
Vc

Since modulation is symmetrical about carrier frequency, in terms of peak-to-peak values

Vmax p  p  Vmin p  p
Modulation Index  m 
Vmax p  p  Vmin p  p

Remember if the modulating signal is too high, (i.e. the modulation index is greater than 1), it
will cause the carrier to cutoff for a period of each cycle. As a result a part of the envelope will
be chopped-off; this is called over modulation, which must be avoided.
 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN THE AM
WAVEFORM
PT =Pc + PLSB + PUSB
Since poser is proportional to the square of voltage, the power –versus-Frequency
spectrum for amplitude –modulated wave is shown, each sideband has a poser content
equal to m2 Pc/4, where Pc is power content of the signal at the carrier frequency.

Thus the total power is

PT=m2Pc/4 + m2Pc/4 Pc
Vc
+ PC

mVc/2 mVc/2 m2Pc/4 m2Pc/4

Fc – fa fc fc + fa Fc – fa fc fc + fa

Voltage and Power Frequency Spectrum

Percent Modulation in an AM transmission.

Combining terms, PT = m2Pc/2 + Pc

Pc/PT = 1/(1+m2/2)

for m = 1
Pc/ PT = 2/3

Therefore for 100% modulation 2/3rd of the total power goes

in carrier
 TYPES OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

The power of an AM signal is given as

PAM  Pcarrier  PLSB  PUSB

Since the information lies only with the modulating signal, not with the carrier so some times we
Suppress Carrier to save the transmission power. On the other hand, the frequency spectrum of a
standard AM waveform, shows that the frequency response is symmetric about the carrier
frequency, i.e. the upper and lower sidebands are of same amplitude and at the same distance (on
frequency scale) to the carrier. So, some times we suppress a sideband to save further power.
Depending on these facts the following are some types of AM.

o          Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSBSC)

  Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
 
        Vestigial Sideband (used commonly for TV video signal transmission)
1.2
1.3

1.4
1.5