Animal Nutrition and

Reproduction

Presenter:
Bimochan Poudel
Dept. Of
Theriogenology
INTRODUCTION

• The relationship between nutrition and reproduction is a topic of increasing

importance and concern among dairy producers, veterinarians, feed dealers and
extension workers. The interaction between nutrition and reproduction has long
been known to have important implications for the reproductive performance
• Role of nutrient is significant in animal reproduction and there is always a
positive correlation between them. The influence of nutrition in animal
reproduction begins early in the animal’s life as the influence of nutrition in young
animals affect the age at which they reach puberty..
• The level of nutrition markedly influences puberty in livestock. The faster an
animal grows the earlier it reaches sexual maturity .In cattle, puberty occur at a
particular live weight or body size than at a fixed age.
• Effects of nutrition's availability and deficiencies are reflected on growth,
production and reproduction of animals. So we can easily claim that the nutrition
is major factor in ruminant production.
 Energy

• Animals require energy for maintenance, growth, work, and for the production of
milk and wool.
• Insufficient intake of energy, protein, vitamins, and micro- and/or macro-minerals
has all been associated with suboptimal reproductive performance. Of these
nutritional effects on reproduction, energy balance is probably the single most
important nutritional factor related to poor reproductive function in animals .
• The effect of Restriction on energy intake during late gestation increases the length
of postpartum anestrous and reduces pregnancy rate.
• If energy deficient rations are fed to heifers that have begun to have normal estrous
cycles, they may stop cycling. (Butler, 2005)
• The incidence of silent estrus is increased when cows fed diets deficient in energy.
Severe weight loss during early lactation results in lower conception rates.
Excessive energy intake during late lactation
• Excessive energy intake during late lactation and the dry period can
cause “fat cow” problems which results lower reproductive efficiency
in the next lactation.
• Caution should be used with feeding excessive amounts of nutrients
before or after calving. Not only it costs higher, but animals with
excess body condition (BCS) have lower reproductive performance
and more calving difficulty than animals in moderate body condition .
• Cows that are over-conditioned when they calve have a higher
incidence of retained placenta, more uterine infections and more
cystic ovaries. They also have a higher incidence of metabolic
disorders and have a greater tendency to go off feed. All of these
problems can result in poor reproductive performance .
PROTEINS
• Proteins are composed of amino acids which contain carbohydrates,
nitrogen and sometimes sulphur. There are ten amino acids essential to
monogastrics, whereas ruminants only need a source of nitrogen, or a
poor quality protein, from which the microbes in the rumen can then
construct the essential amino acids.
• Protein is essential for growth, reproduction and maintenance in both
monogastrics and ruminants. Mature animals require less protein on the
basis of percentage of the feed offered than young ones. Excess protein is
utilised as an energy source.
• Supplementation of dietary protein can increase the ovulation rate both
in sheep and cattle.
• In pigs prolonged protein deficiency especially in young animal’s leads to
reproductive failures.
 What if the protein fed exceeds the cow’s requirements ?

• Excess protein is converted into ammonia, which is not utilized in the

rumen and is absorbed in the blood . This ammonia in the blood is
converted into urea. Elevated levels of urea have been associated with
decreased pregnancy rates in dairy cows through a poorly understood
mechanism .
• It appears that exposure to high levels of ammonia or urea may impair
the maturation of oocytes and subsequent fertilization or maturation of
developing embryos.
• Increased urea level can decrease the uterine pH that would negatively
affect the implantation and development of embryos, mostly at the
cleavage and blastocyst formation stage .
• Supplying adequate energy for excretion of excess ammonia or urea may
prevent these negative effects on reproductive performance of cows
Schematic summary of protein metabolism and
digestion in dairy animals
Fats
• Fatty acids and cholesterol are important as substrates for hormone
synthesis. Increase fat in the diet may increase levels of reproductive
hormones (progesterone, prostaglandins). Therefore, the effects of fat may
be independent of or additive to those of increased energy availability.
• Cattle diets usually contain less than 2 or 3% fat. Supplementing fat to
improve reproduction was initially attempted to increase the energy
density in the diet. High fat diets for cattle contain 5% to 8 % fat. Exceeding
these dietary fat levels impairs rumen function.
• Lactating cows are the primary animals to be supplemented because of
their increased energy requirements, and the difficulty involved with
getting these cows rebred.
Schematic representation of the potential pathway of Fatty acid to improve
reproductive performance
Fatty Acid Supplementation

Increase Energy Level

Increased Blood Glucose Level

Proper Hormones Production

Normalized Ovary Function

Increased Follicles Production

Decreased Anestrous Period

Vitamins
• Vitamin A and E : important for their role in maintaining cellular integrity and
antioxidant property respectively and also help in maintenance of immune status
of animals which in turn directly impacts upon the health of the animal.
• Vitamin D can be synthesized by skin in the presence of sunlight, and vitamin K by
the microbes in the ruminants. Hence from practical point of view only vitamin A
and E need to be supplemented.
• Vitamin A - form normal epithelial development in all species. Vitamin A deficiency
results failure of epithelial development which negatively impacts reproductive
function.
• Vitamin E posses antioxidant property and promotes immune functions, protecting
cells and tissues in the body from oxidative damage due to action from free
radicals. In subclinical mastitis supplementation of vitamin E @740 IU/cow/day
during dry period led to 37% reduction in the incidence of clinical symptoms.
• B complex vitamins deficiencies in ruminants such as riboflavin and folic acid have
been shown to reduce the survival of embryos. 
 Minerals
• Phosphorus ‘P’ deficiency in grazing ruminants is associated with poor fertility, probably by affecting
the general metabolic processes, feed intake and the general plane of nutrition. However there is
evidence that ‘P’ deficiency has a direct effect on reproduction through suppressing estrus cycle.
• Selenium deficiency is associated with deficiency of Vitamin E. It reduces fertility by affecting
fertilization and viability of spermatozoa. In selenium deficit areas supplementation of selenium in
the diets of ewes increases the lambing percentage. Se supplementation along with Vitamin E in
dairy cows reduces the incidence of retention of placenta.
• Copper deficiency: Herbage copper levels of less than 3mg/kg DM delay the return of estrus and
lengthen the calving interval in cattle. Copper deficiency can be induced by excessive molybdenum
in the diet resulting in depressing the estrus, because it reduces the secretion of LH. Deficiencies of
Cu and Iodine reduce egg production in poultry.
• Mn deficiency in cow’s goats and ewes results delayed ovulation and poor conception rates.
Manganese deficient ewes and cows may require more services per conception and respond to Mn
supplementation.
• Zinc deficiency affects the reproductive performance of males by preventing spermatogenesis. Zinc
is a component of enzyme thymidinekinase, which is required for spermatogenesis. In the female Zn
deficiency may passively increase embryo mortality and reduced hatchability in poultry. 
• Molybdenum (Mo) and Iodine (I)are the other trace minerals that affect fertility.
Nutrition and the initiation of reproductive ability:

Plane of nutrition greatly influences the age at puberty. Liberal feeding of diets with high energy
content induces puberty earlier in cattle. In sheep the attainment of puberty is complicated by
their seasonal breeding pattern, spring born ewe lambs that are well nourished reach puberty in
the same autumn of the same year (6 months of age) whereas poorly fed lambs come to puberty
at 18 months of age. In pigs high plane of nutrition do not advance puberty. The primary
determinants in pig are age, (170-122 days) breed (cross bred reach puberty 20 days before
purebreds) and the age at which gilts are mated with the boars. 
(McDonald P Edwards RA, Greenhalgh JFD 2002)

Table: 1 Age and size at puberty of HF cattle reared on different planes of nutrition
Negative Energy Balance (NEB), First Ovulation and Fertility
• At the beginning of lactation, the energy needs for milk production are higher
than the available energy consumed from feed intake resulting in a negative
energy balance (NEB). This leads to fat mobilization and consequently elevated
plasma concentrations of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), which are used as
a fuel source by peripheral tissues and the mammary gland for milk fat
synthesis,
• Low energy in early lactation or NEB will result in decreased reproductive
hormones, and so delayed first ovulation. Delayed first ovulation as a
consequence of NEB in early lactation may be explained by a prolonged an-
ovulatory phase in nearly 30% of cows .
• Ovulation of the dominant follicle is necessary for successful conception of the
animal. Ovulation of the first dominant follicle depends on the size of follicle,
estradiol production and concentration of LH and IGF-1 (22). During low energy
availability the LH pulse decreases significantly, additionally, IGF-I is also
directly related to energy status and is critical to ovarian follicular development
.
Nutrition and growth of fetus:

• Total requirements of nutrients for growth of the fetus increases exponentially

during gestation and are quantitatively significant in the last trimester of the
pregnancy. Nutrients are also required for the growth of the fetal membranes,
uterus, mammary glands and the body reserves of the mother.
• The placenta has a key role in ensuring that the fetus receives optimal supplies of
all nutrients required but overfeeding during mid pregnancy restricts the size of
placenta and hence reduces birth weight. Underfeeding in late pregnancy also
reduces birth weight.
• Nutrient deficiencies in pregnancy may affect either the mother or the fetus or
even both. Many vitamin and mineral deficiencies are first manifested in the fetus.
• Pregnancy toxemia is a condition in ewes caused by deficiency of glucose due to
reduction in feed intake during gestation. This condition can be prevented by
ensuring adequate feed supply in late pregnancy by using foods that supply
glucose or its precursors rather than acetate, i.e. concentrates rather than
roughages.
Conclusion
• Reproduction is the major and most important part in animal rearing as
it directly influences the production . Balanced feeding enhances the
reproductive performances while deficiency in certain nutrition directly
hampers it so as the overfeeding. Prolonged gestation periods , fetal
anomalies , delayed ovulation , prolonged calving intervals are the
conditions that might takes places due to unbalanced feeding .
• Consequences of impaired or deficient nutrients to livestock can be
severe to the farmer. In dairy industry animals are kept solely to
produce milk and rear calves. If cow fails to conceive, her output will be
zero and the farmer suffers financial loss. Small litters in sheep and pigs
can be the critical factor between profit and loss. Hence great care must
be given to nutrition in farm animals to ensure optimal reproduction
and profitability in livestock.
References

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• Knop, R., & Cernescu, H. (2009). Effects of negative energy balance on reproduction in
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• McDonald P Edwards RA, Greenhalgh JFD and Morgan CA 2002, Animal Nutrition, Sixth
edition, Pearson education, Delhi.