Unit 1: Theory and

Perspective
SOCIOLOGY
JAVARIA QAIS JOIYA
Definition of Perspective

 Perspective is basically the way we look at things or our

point of view. Furthermore, different people have
different perspectives. When we use different
perspectives, we might see the same scene or objects in
different ways.
 Forexample, some students might see school as a place to
have fun, whereas some may see it as a place with too
many rules and regulations.
 Definition of Approach

 It
is closely linked to perspective. It dictates the kinds of methods and
why we choose them in Sociology.
 One phenomenon could have different perspectives and different
approaches.
 The sociological approach goes beyond everyday common
sense. ... Sociology, is an attempt to understand the social world by
situating social events in their corresponding environment (i.e., social
structure, culture, history) and trying to understand social phenomena
by collecting and analysing empirical data.
 Definition of Theory

 A theory is a reasonable or scientifically acceptable general principle or set of

principles that explain a particular phenomenon. It is an explanation of why
something happens. It emerges through scientific methods. Constant
observations and recurrent experiments are necessary for the formation of a
theory.
 A theory aims to study sociological concepts and give it sense.
 Sociologists develop theories to explain social events, interactions, and
patterns. A theory is a proposed explanation of those social interactions.
 Structuralism

 In sociology,anthropology, archaeology, history and linguistics, structuralism is a

general theory of culture and methodology that implies that elements of human culture
must be understood by way of their relationship to a broader system.
 Structuralism is a method of interpreting and analysing such things as language, literature,
and society, which focuses on contrasting ideas or elements of structure and attempts to show
how they relate to the whole structure.
 One of the two main approaches to studying Sociology.
 This approach focuses on the big picture and demonstrates how society makes us what we are,
concentrating on the way the structure of society has an influence on our everyday lives. The
belief lies on the existence of an underlying, unchanging structure that dictates human actions.
 Macro. In that the focus lies on the wider society (social structures and institutions) as
opposed to individuals.
 Interpretivism

 An approach that starts at the individual level, focusing on small scale phenomenon.
 Interpretivists argue that the study of human society must go beyond empirical and
supposedly objective evidence to include subjective views, opinions, emotions, values:
the things that can't be directly observed and counted. They are phenomena that
require interpretation.
 Micro-scale is a small-scale interaction, rather than large-scale society.
 The starting point it the individual itself, in terms of study – interested in how people
see/understand themselves and their identity
 Itis a relatively deeper understanding of society as it looks for meanings, reasons and
causes rather than just facts. The perspective is taken from an individual’s point of view
 Social Structures

 Social structure, in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of

institutions whereby human beings in a society interact and live
together. Social structure is often treated together with the concept
of social change, which deals with the forces that change the social
structure and the organization of society.
 Stable arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a society
interact and live together.
 Each society is different.
 Social force is a man-made structure
 Religion and Family are social forces.
 Social Force

 Specifically, a social force is a consensus on the part of a sufficient number of

the members of society to bring about social action or social change of some
sort. In the plural, the social forces are the typical basic drives, or motives,
which lead to the fundamental types of association and group relationship.
 Man-made set of ways to influence individuals.
 Society changes because people change.
 Individuals hold power and agency to determine their actions.
 May not be due to private troubles, but is in fact prompted by the ways societies
are organized. Social forces are the reason behind individual actions.
 Social Force (Cont.)

 The recognition that social structures and forces shape a person's beliefs, values,

norms, and expectations lie at the heart of sociology. These forces influence our
experiences, interactions with others, and ultimately, the outcomes of our lives.
 The social forces which influence the life chances of the members of
the society include social status, economic status and educational attainment. For
example if a person has resources, the person can finish college, and get a chance to
earn more money compared to those who did not have resources to finish college.
 Therefore, according to the structuralist approach, individuals have less freedom than
they think since their choice really is not their own and is affected by the society at large.
 Labels

 This refers to a theory of social behaviour which states that the behaviour of

human beings is influenced significantly by the way other members
in society label them. It has been used to explain a variety
of social behaviour among groups, including deviant criminal behaviour.
 What society makes available for us, what we choose to accept and what we
reject is up to us, how we include them in our identity.
Socially Available Labels

 The labeling theory suggests that people obtain labels from how

others view their tendencies or behaviors. Each individual is aware
of how they are judged by others because he or she has attempted
many different roles and functions in social interactions and has
been able to gauge the reactions of those present.
 Gender, Social class, Nationality, Occupation and Roles within family.
 Identities
come from our own interactions and ideas, social interaction
thus become very important.
 Social labeling is a persuasion technique that consists of providing a person
with a statement about his or her personality or values (i.e., the social label)
in an attempt to provoke behavior that is consistent with the label. ... It
informs the individual about his or her personality traits and values.
 Qualitative

 Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and

works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning
from these data that help understand social life through the study of
targeted populations or places.
 Based on attributes and status
 Unstructured
 Detailed
 Open-ended
 Quantitative

 Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of data that is

quantifiable. ... The most common quantitative methods
in sociology include: Using surveys. Using questionnaires. Conducting
pre/post designs.
 Statisticaland is typically structured data – meaning it is more rigid and
defined. This type of data is measured using numbers and values. It is
relatively concise and close-ended. It can be used to ask the questions “how
much” or “how many” followed by conclusive information.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-XtVF7Bofg
Predictability

 predictability isthe idea that no matter where a person goes,

they will receive the same service and receive the same product
every time they interact with the McDonaldized organization.
This also applies to the workers in those organizations. Their
tasks are highly repetitive, highly routine, and predictable
 A forecast,a statement about the future based on present results
and patterns.
Objectivity

 To be objective, a researcher must not allow their

values, their bias or their views to impact on their
research, analysis or findings. For research to be
reliable and to be considered scientific, objectivity is
paramount.
 No bias, judgment or prejudice – to keep your personal
feelings and views away from research.
Objectivism: on the basis of the separation of the subject
and object of knowledge, the purely theoretical attitude of
the uninvolved observer is adopted so that the focus is
exclusively on the object, typically accompanied by the
claim that there is no such thing as the subject or
substantial self.
A social objective is a statement that details
a specific desired outcome of a project that is
related to the interaction of the individuals,
groups, and institutions within a society.
Often our social objective is related to
improving human wellbeing.
 What Kind of Method Do Structuralist
Use?
 The critical difference between social structure theory
and structuralism is one of approach. Analysis of social structure uses
standard empirical (observational) methods to arrive at generalizations
about society, while structuralism uses subjective, interpretive,
phenomenological, and qualitative analysis.
 Their method of preference is experiments, questionnaires and surveys – will
discuss in detail later.
 But these kind of methods produce quantitative data.
What method did structuralism use?
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and
focused on breaking down mental processes into the
most basic components. Researchers tried to understand
the basic elements of
consciousness using a method known as introspection.
 Causation and Correlation

Causation Correlation
 Causation is  Correlation refers to a relationship
a belief that
between two (or more) variables in which
events occur in predictable they change together. A correlation can
ways and that one event leads be positive/direct or negative/inverse.
to another.  Causation refers to a relationship between
 When a variable causes another two (or more) variables where one
variable causes the other.
thing to happen and this can be  When two variables are linked, but do not
proven strictly. cause each other.
 HOW TO CARRY OUT
Designing a SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Research HTTPS://WWW.YOUTUBE.CO
M/WATCH?V=ZIWYNIDGJBE
 1. Observation

 Sociologists use observation as a research method where they watch people in a social situation and record what
is said and done.
 The different types of observation all have their own strengths and limitations.
 The topic has always been touched or researched before.
 The need to understand the topic.
 The four typesof observational roles we discuss here are based on the distinctions made by the sociologist
Raymond Gold in 1958 but apply to any field of research.

• Complete Observer.
• Observer as Participant.
• Participant as Observer.
• Complete Participant.
 2. Understand and Explore

 Sociologists studyhow society affects people and how people affect society. ...
domain and puzzles of the social that sociology seeks
to explore and understand.
 Research aim
 Topic is chosen and needed to have an understanding of the topic first.
 One topic can have different exploration sub-topics
 Links in sub-topics exist
 Research leads to more research
 How does social circle influence their choices? e.g Music.
 Research topics vary according to:
• Interests
• Under researched or over researched topics
• New social development with little research
• Funding/resources
• Practicality
• Ethically correct
3. Funding

 IDEAS
Designing a STEP 2. HYPOTHESIS
SETTING AND REVISION
Research
 Hypothesis

 A hypothesis is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it

makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables.
In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human
behavior influences another.
 An assumption or a proposed explanation based on observation at the start of a
given research process. It is a statement that can either be proved or disproved
at the end of a research. It links 2 variables to each other.
 Tested through research.
 It is basically a feature of natural sciences, however Interpretivists have aims
 How 2 or more variables are connected.
 It is the basis of the research or sums up the research
 The conclusion of the hypothesis is open to interpretation.
 A hypothesis is made by something that is already known.
Variables

 The basic unit of statistics is the variable. They are properties

or characteristics of an object, person, place or thing that are
measurable and can take on more than one value or can vary.
 Variables are properties or characteristics of some
event, object, person, place or thing that are
measurable and can take on more than one value, or
vary.
 Research Process

 Observation  Research  Hypothesis  Research  Conclusion

Literature Review:
• Going through articles.
• Sets the stage and gives a sense
of what is in store.
• Shapes focus and tells us what to
start from.
 Several stages compose the sociological research process. These stages
include
 (a) choosing a research topic,
 (b) conducting a literature review,
 (c) measuring variables and gathering data,
 (d) analysing data, and
 (e) drawing a conclusion.
 As a minimum, measures should be as clear and unambiguous as possible.
 The Seven Steps of the Research Process
• STEP 1: IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP YOUR TOPIC.
• STEP 2: FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION.
• STEP 3: USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS AND MEDIA.
• STEP 4: USE INDEXES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES.
• STEP 5: FIND ADDITIONAL INTERNET RESOURCES.
• STEP 6: EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND.
• STEP 7: CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD
FORMAT.