Machine Design

The subject Machine Design is the creation of

new and better machines and improving the
existing ones.
A new or better machine is one which is more
economical in the overall cost of production
and operation.
Classification of Machine Design
Classification of Machine Design Contd.
 General Consideration in Machine Design

• Types of Loads and Stresses caused by loads

• Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.

• Selection of the material.

• Form and size of the parts.

• Frictional resistance and lubrication.

• Convenient and economical features.

• Use of standard parts.

 General Consideration in Machine Design Contd.

• Safety of operation.

• Workshop facilities.

• Number of machines to be manufactured.

• Cost of construction.

• Assembling.
General procedure in Machine Design
 Factor of Safety

• A factor of safety increases the safety of people and reduces the risk

of failure of a product. When it comes to safety equipment and fall
protection, the factor of safety is extremely important. If a structure
fails there is a risk of injury and death as well as a company's
financial loss

• The disadvantage is only that it causes an increment in the cost of

product

• Structures or components with FoS < 1 are not viable; basically, 1 is

the minimum.

• With the equation above, an FoS of 2 means that a component will

fail at twice the design load, and so on.
 Factor of Safety

• It is the ratio of maximum stress to the permissible or working

stress.

• FOS = Yield Stress (Maximum Stress)/ Working Stress (Use this

relation is for Ductile Material)

• FOS = Ultimate Stress (Maximum Stress)/ Working Stress (Use

this relation is for Brittle Material)

• FOS is a number which we want always grater than 1.

Factor of Safety
 Factor of Safety

Factor of Safety
Applications
- FOS - 
For use with highly reliable materials where loading and
environmental conditions are not severe and where weight is 1.3 - 1.5
an important consideration
For use with reliable materials where loading and
1.5 - 2
environmental conditions are not severe
For use with ordinary materials where loading and
2 - 2.5
environmental conditions are not severe
For use with less tried and for brittle materials where loading
2.5 - 3
and environmental conditions are not severe
For use with materials where properties are not reliable and
where loading and environmental conditions are not severe,
3-4
or where reliable materials are used under difficult and
environmental conditions
 Factors on which Factor of safety depends
• Material selection: Ductile or Brittle

• Types of loading: Static, Variable, Shock

• Cost or Economy: As FOS increases, dimensions goes on

increasing and that affects on cost.

• Importance of that machine part in complete machine

• Safety to human life.

 Selection of Material

Four Basic factors which are considered in selection of material:

• Availability
• Cost
• Mechanical Properties
• Manufacturing Consideration

Eg: Flywheel, housing of gear box or engine block have complex shapes.
These components are made from Cast Iron because casting produces
complicated shapes without involving machine operations.
Selection of Material
Selection of Material
Designation of Materials
 Theories of Failure
• Before finding out the dimensions of the component it is necessary
to know the type of failure that the component may fail when put
into services. The machine component is said to have ‘failed’ when
it is unable to perform its functions satisfactorily. The three basic
types of failure are as follows:

• Failure due to elastic deformation

• Failure due to general yielding

• Failure due to fracture

 Theories of Failure
Maximum Principal or Normal Stress theory:

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at any point in a

member when the maximum principal or normal stress in bi-axial stress
system reaches the limiting strength of the material in simple tension test.

σ = σyt/FOS For Ductile material

σ = σut/FOS For Brittle material

Since maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in

tension or compression and ignores the possibility of failure due to shear
stress.
 Theories of Failure

Maximum Shear Stress Theory:

It sates that “The failure or yielding of the component occurs when the
working stress value reaches the limiting strength (shear stress) value in
the material”.
 Theories of Failure

Maximum Shear Stress Theory:

This theory of failure is widely used by designers for predicting the
failure of components which are made of ductile materials, like
transmission shafts
 Theories of Failure
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory:
It sates that “The failure or yielding in a member or material occurs
when the distortion energy value in bi-axial stress system reaches the
maximum distortion energy value limiting at yield point”.
 Theories of Failure
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory:
For ductile materials, the choice of theory depends on the level of
accuracy required and degree of computational difficulty the designer is
ready to face.
For ductile material, the most accurate way to design is to use
distortion energy theory of failure and the easiest way to design is to
apply maximum shear stress theory.
 Service Factor

• Overload capacity built into a component, device, engine, motor, etc.,

is called as a safety factor.
• It is expressed usually a number greater than one:

• SF of 1.15 means the item can take 15 percent more load than its
rated capacity without breakdown.
 Fail safe design

• Fail-safe designs are designs that incorporate various

techniques to mitigate losses due to system or
component failures.

• The design assumption is that failure will eventually

occur but when it does the device, system or process
will fail in a safe manner.
 Stress Concentration

• Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross

section, the simple stress distribution no longer holds good and
the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different.

• The irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt

change of form is called “stress Concentration”. It occurs for
all kind of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes,
keyways, splines, surface roughness are scratches etc.
 Stress Concentration

• Consider a member with different cross section

under a tensile load as shown in figure. It shows
that nominal stress in the right and left hand sides
will be uniform but in the region where the cross
section is changing, a re–distribution of the force
within the member must takes place. The
material near the edges is stressed considerably
higher than average value. The maximum stress
occurs at same point on the fillet and is directed

parallel to the boundary at the point.

 Causes of Stress Concentration
1. Abrupt change in cross-section of machine member

e.g. stepped shaft , key way's , oil groove.

2. Concentrated load applied on small area – examples of this are

i) Contact between wheel & rail.

ii) Contact between ball & race.

iii) Contact between gear teeth.

3. Variation in properties of material From point to point - examples of this are

i) Internal cavities or blow holes.

ii) Cavities in welding.

iii) A non – metallic inclusions.

 Remedies of Stress Concentration
The presence of Stress concentration cannot be totally

eliminated but it may be reduced to same extent. To reduce

the stress concentration the stress flow lines should maintain

their spacing as far as possible .The change in the cross

section should be gradual to the possible extent. This can be

achieved through numerous ways.

A) Method of reducing stress concentration by Gradual

change.

B) Method of reducing stress concentration by providing

groove cuts.

C) Method of reducing stress concentration by providing

additional holes

D) Method of reducing stress concentration in threads by

providing undercut
Stress Strain Diagram
Stress Strain Diagram Contd.
 Cotter Joint
• A cotter joint is a temporary fastening and is used to connect rigidly two co-axial
rods or bars which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive forces.

• A cotter is a flat wedge shaped piece of rectangular cross-section and its width is
tapered (either on one side or both sides) from one end to another for an easy
adjustment.

• The cotter is usually made of mild steel or wrought iron.

• It is usually used in connecting a piston rod to the crosshead of a reciprocating

steam engine
 Cotter Joint Contd.

Following are the three commonly used cotter joints to connect

two rods by a cotter:

1. Socket and spigot cotter joint,

2. Sleeve and cotter joint, and
3. Gib and cotter joint
Cotter Joint Contd.
Sleeve and Cotter Joint
Sleeve and Cotter Joint
Knuckle Joint
Knuckle Joint
 Knuckle Joint

• A Knuckle is used to connect two rods which are under the

action of tensile loads.
• A Knuckle joint may be readily disconnected for adjustments
or repairs.
• It may used in the link of a cycle chain, pump rod joints, valve
rod joint with eccentric rod, tractor and trolley connection etc.
 Levers

• A lever is defined as a machine member or rigid rod or bar capable of

turning about a fixed point called fulcrum.

• It is used to lift a load by the application of a small effort.

• The ratio of load lifted to the effort applied is called mechanical

advantage.

• Lever consist of three main parts the fulcrum, the load-arm and the
effort arm.

• The principle on which the lever works is same as that of moments.

The perpendicular distance between the load point and
fulcrum (l1) is known as load arm and the perpendicular
distance between the effort point and fulcrum (l2) is
called effort arm. According to the principle of
moments,
In the first type of levers, the fulcrum is in between the load and
effort. In this case, the effort arm is greater than load arm,
therefore mechanical advantage obtained is more than one. Such
type of levers are commonly found in bell cranked levers used in
railway signaling arrangement, rocker arm in internal
combustion engines, handle of a hand pump, hand wheel of a
punching press, beam of a balance, foot lever etc.
In the second type of levers, the load is in between the
fulcrum and effort. In this case, the effort arm is more
than load arm, therefore the mechanical advantage is
more than one. The application of such type of levers
is found in levers of loaded safety valves.

In the third type of levers, the effort is in between the

fulcrum and load. Since the effort arm, in this case, is
less than the load arm, therefore the mechanical
advantage is less that one. The use of such type of
levers is not recommended in engineering practice.
However a pair of tongs, the treadle of a sewing
machine etc. are examples of this type of lever.
Hand Lever
Foot Lever
 Lever for lever safety valve

• A lever safety valve is shown in Fig. It is used to maintain a constant safe pressure
inside the boiler. When the pressure inside the boiler increases the safe value, the
excess steam blows off through the valve automatically.

• The valve rests over the gunmetal seat which is secured to a casing fixed upon the
boiler. One end of the lever is pivoted at the fulcrum F by a pin to the toggle, while
the other end carries the weights. The valve is held on its seat against the upward
steam pressure by the force P provided by the weights at B. The weights and its
distance from the fulcrum are so adjusted that when the steam pressure acting
upward on the valve exceeds the normal limit, it lifts the valve and the lever with its
weights. The excess steam thus escapes until the pressure falls to the required limit.
 Bell Crank Lever

• In Bell Crank Lever, the two arms of the lever are right angle.
Such type of levers are used in railway signalling, governors
of Hartnell type the drive for the air pump of condensers etc.

• The arms if the bell crank lever may be assumed as

rectangular, elliptical or I-section.